公開日: 2012/03/26
http://www.ted.com What's the key to using alternative energy, like solar and wind? Storage -- so we can have power on tap even when the sun's not out and the wind's not blowing. In this accessible, inspiring talk, Donald Sadoway takes to the blackboard to show us the future of large-scale batteries that store renewable energy. As he says: "We need to think about the problem differently. We need to think big. We need to think cheap."
TEDTalks is a daily video podcast of the best talks and performances from the TED Conference, where the world's leading thinkers and doers give the talk of their lives in 18 minutes. Featured speakers have included Al Gore on climate change, Philippe Starck on design, Jill Bolte Taylor on observing her own stroke, Nicholas Negroponte on One Laptop per Child, Jane Goodall on chimpanzees, Bill Gates on malaria and mosquitoes, Pattie Maes on the "Sixth Sense" wearable tech, and "Lost" producer JJ Abrams on the allure of mystery. TED stands for Technology, Entertainment, Design, and TEDTalks cover these topics as well as science, business, development and the arts. Closed captions and translated subtitles in a variety of languages are now available on TED.com, at http://www.ted.com/translate
If you have questions or comments about this or other TED videos, please go to http://support.ted.com
TEDTalks is a daily video podcast of the best talks and performances from the TED Conference, where the world's leading thinkers and doers give the talk of their lives in 18 minutes. Featured speakers have included Al Gore on climate change, Philippe Starck on design, Jill Bolte Taylor on observing her own stroke, Nicholas Negroponte on One Laptop per Child, Jane Goodall on chimpanzees, Bill Gates on malaria and mosquitoes, Pattie Maes on the "Sixth Sense" wearable tech, and "Lost" producer JJ Abrams on the allure of mystery. TED stands for Technology, Entertainment, Design, and TEDTalks cover these topics as well as science, business, development and the arts. Closed captions and translated subtitles in a variety of languages are now available on TED.com, at http://www.ted.com/translate
If you have questions or comments about this or other TED videos, please go to http://support.ted.com
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http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/materials-science-and-engineering/3-091sc-introduction-to-solid-state-chemistry-fall-2010/structure-of-the-atom/1-introduction-to-solid-state-chemistry/
1. Introduction to Solid State Chemistry
Session Overview
| Modules | Structure of the Atom |
| Concepts | origins of modern chemistry, taxonomy of chemical species, introduction to the periodic table, evolution of atomic theory |
| Keywords | matter, element, compound, mixture, solution, metal, semimetal, nonmetal, mole, symbol, molecular mass, substance, homogeneous mixture, heterogeneous mixture, periodic table of elements, Democritus, Aristotle, John Dalton, triads, octaves, Johann Dobereiner, John Newlands, Dmitri Mendeleev, Julius Meyer |
| Chemical Substances | none |
| Applications | energy generation and storage (e.g. batteries) |
Lecture Video
Prerequisites
Before starting this session, you should be familiar with:
•Basic principles of high school chemistry
•Fundamental concepts of the structure of the atom
Looking Ahead
Prof. Sadoway discusses the periodic table in more detail (Session 2). He explores the relationship between electronic structure, chemical bonding, and crystal structure (Session 4).
Learning Objectives
After completing this session, you should be able to:
•Classify a substance as an element or a compound.
•Understand the developmental history of the periodic table of elements.
•Identify the symbols and number of electrons for an element.
•Classify an element as a metal, semimetal or a nonmetal.
•Explain which sets of elements are in the same period.
•Calculate the molecular mass of a compound.
•Calculate the number of moles in a substance.
•Define a homogenous mixture and a heterogeneous mixture.
Reading
| Book Chapters | Topics |
|---|---|
| [A&E] 1, "Introduction to Chemistry." | Chemistry in the modern world; the scientific method; a description of matter; a brief history of chemistry; the atom; introduction to the periodic table; essential elements |
Resources
Lecture Slides (PDF - 3.2MB)Periodic Table and Table of Constants
Transcript (PDF)
Lecture Summary
This lecture is an introduction to the class.Professor Sadoway begins with important information about the course objectives, organization, and expectations, and proceeds to introduce the subject of solid state chemistry. 3.091 integrates thorough coverage of the principles of chemistry with various applications to engineering systems. The thesis of 3.091 is that electronic structure holds the key to understanding the world around us.
The lecture continues with a survey of the historical foundations of chemistry:
•The origins of chemistry in ancient Egypt and Greece
•The development of increasingly refined classification schemes (taxonomy and nomenclature) throughout the 18th and 19th centuries
•The evolution of atomic theory
•The origins and development of the periodic table of elements
Homework
Problems (PDF)
Solutions (PDF)
Textbook Problems
| [A&E] Sections | Conceptual | Numerical |
|---|---|---|
| [A&E] 1.3, "A Description of Matter." | 6, 7, 9, 10 | none |
| [A&E] 1.4, "A Brief History of Chemistry." | 6 | none |
| [A&E] 1.5, "The Atom." | none | 1 |
| [A&E] 1.6, "Isotopes and Atomic Masses." | 1 | none |
| [A&E] 1.7, "Introduction to the Periodic Table." | 1, 4, 6, 10, 11 | none |
| [A&E] 3.1, "The Mole and Molar Masses." | none | 3, 8, 16, 17 |
For Further Study
Textbook Study Materials
See the [A&E] companion website from Pearson for PowerPoint outlines of each chapter, plus online quizzes, interactive graphs and 3D molecular animations:Chapter 1
« Previous | Next »
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2. The Periodic Table
http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/materials-science-and-engineering/3-091sc-introduction-to-solid-state-chemistry-fall-2010/structure-of-the-atom/2-periodic-table/
Lecture Video
Session Overview
| Modules | Structure of the Atom |
| Concepts | classification schemes for the elements, periodic table, atomic structure, stoichiometry |
| Keywords | periodic table, matter, atom, John Dalton, compound, electron number, proton number, neutron number, electron, proton, neutron, electron charge, proton charge, elementary charge, wavelength, frequency, energy, superheavy, Dmitri Mendeleev, conservation of mass, bomb reactor, gas, liquid, solid, electronegativity, chemical reaction, chemical equation, chemical symbol, chemical formula, atomic mass, atomic mass unit, atomic weight, atomic number, neutral atom, ion, ionization energy, mass number, stoichiometry, mole, isotope, isotopic abundance, coulomb, degrees Kelvin, Jöns Berzelius, Amedeo Avogadro, Michael Faraday, quantized electric charge, Faraday's constant, Robert Millikan, oil drop experiment, Avogadro's number, Alexander Borodin |
| Chemical Substances | carbon (C), titanium (Ti), ekasilicon (Es), germanium (Ge) |
| Applications | Kroll process for producing titanium metal |
Prerequisites
Before starting this session, you should be familiar with:•Session 1: Introduction to Solid State Chemistry
Looking Ahead
Prof. Sadoway describes Rutherford's model of the atom and Bohr's model of hydrogen (Session 3).Learning Objectives
•Explain the structure and layout of the periodic table of elements.
•Understand the structure of chemical formulas.
•Apply the concepts of stoichiometry to balance a chemical equation.
•Understand the relationship between frequency, wavelength and energy for photons.
•Identify the superheavy elements.
•Describe the structure of the atom and the properties of the electron, proton and neutron.
•Define an isotope and understand the naming convention for isotopes.
•Calculate the number of electrons in an ion.
•Define ionization energy.
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3. Atomic Models: Rutherford & Bohr
http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/materials-science-and-engineering/3-091sc-introduction-to-solid-state-chemistry-fall-2010/structure-of-the-atom/3-atomic-models/
Lecture Video
Session Overview
| Modules | Structure of the Atom |
| Concepts | Thomson's plum pudding model, Rutherford's model of the nucleus, Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom, Rutherford-Geiger-Marsden experiment, Planck-Einstein relationship, isotopes of hydrogen |
| Keywords | lanthanides, actinides, electron, mass, J. J. Thomson, proton, electrical charge, amber, alpha particle, beta particle, ionization, conservation of mass, Johannes Geiger, Ernest Marsden, coulomb, Niels Bohr, Bohr model of hydrogen, energy quantization, orbital angular momentum, Planck-Einstein relationship, joule, Newtonian force, Coulombic force, Max Planck, photon, energy, frequency, Planck's constant, isotope, Henry Cavendish, Harold Urey, Ernest Rutherford, blackbody radiation |
| Chemical Substances | lanthanum (La), magnesium (Mg), chlorine (Cl), titanium (Ti), helium (He), hydrogen (H) |
| Applications | nuclear fission, nanotechnology |
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4. Matter/Energy Interactions: Atomic Spectra
http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/materials-science-and-engineering/3-091sc-introduction-to-solid-state-chemistry-fall-2010/structure-of-the-atom/4-matter-energy-interactions/
Lecture Video
Session Overview
| Modules | Structure of the Atom |
| Concepts | atomic spectra of hydrogen, matter/energy interactions involving atomic hydrogen, planetary model, Bohr's postulates, quantum condition, ionization energy, electron orbital transitions |
| Keywords | angstrom, Avogadro's number, prism, refraction, wavelength, nanometer, Johann Balmer, wavenumber, Michael Faraday, cathode, anode, electron-volt, Bohr radius, ground state, ionization energy, energy level, conservation of energy, atomic spectra, Cecilia Payne, Ernest Rutherford, joule, coulomb, Max Planck, Planck's constant, emission spectra, spectrograph, electrode, photon, volt, radiation |
| Chemical Substances | hydrogen (H), helium (He), lithium (Li) |
| Applications | chemical analysis, analyzing composition of stars, television |
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5. Electron Shell Model & Quantum Numbers
http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/materials-science-and-engineering/3-091sc-introduction-to-solid-state-chemistry-fall-2010/structure-of-the-atom/5-electron-shell-model-quantum-numbers/
Lecture Video
Session Overview
| Modules | Structure of the Atom |
| Concepts | Bohr-Sommerfeld model and multi-electron atoms, quantum numbers (n, l, m, s), Balmer and Pfund series, Rydberg equation, Stern-Gerlach experiment |
| Keywords | angstrom, wavelength, wave number, electron-volt, electron shell, electron subshell, quantum numbers, James Franck, Heinrich Hertz, Albert Michelson, Edward Morley, Pieter Zeeman, Hendrik Lorentz, emission line splitting, Arnold Sommerfeld, Bohr-Sommerfeld model, multi-electron atom, Johannes Kepler, Niels Bohr, Otto Stern, Walter Gerlach, Rydberg equation |
| Chemical Substances | hydrogen (H), helium (He), mercury (Hg) |
| Applications | photodetectors |
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6. Particle-Wave Duality
http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/materials-science-and-engineering/3-091sc-introduction-to-solid-state-chemistry-fall-2010/structure-of-the-atom/6-particle-wave-duality/
Lecture Video
Session Overview
| Modules | Structure of the Atom |
| Concepts | electron orbital filling: Aufbau principle, Pauli exclusion principle, and Hund's rule, photoelectron spectroscopy, average valence electron energy, quantum mechanics: wave/particle duality, Heisenberg uncertainty principle, Schrödinger equation |
| Keywords | Louis de Broglie, Werner Heisenberg, Heisenberg uncertainty principle, Aufbau principle, Wolfgang Pauli, Pauli exclusion principle, Friedrich Hund, Hund's rule, Erwin Schrödinger, Schrödinger equation, quantum number, principal quantum number, angular momentum, magnetic quantum number, electron filling order, electron occupancy, orbital degeneracy, electron configuration, photon, standing wave, destructive interference, constructive interference, metal crystals, x-ray analysis, electron diffraction, matter waves, simple harmonic oscillator, wave equation, eigenfunction, radial probability density, nodes, nodal plane, spectral line splitting, electron spin |
| Chemical Substances | carbon (C), hydrogen (H) |
| Applications | ray optics, wave mechanics |
Prerequisites
Before starting this session, you should be familiar with:
•Session 5: Electron Shell Model & Quantum Numbers
Looking Ahead
Prof. Sadoway discusses the Aufbau principle and photoelectron spectroscopy (Session 7).
Learning Objectives
After completing this session, you should be able to:
•Explain how quantum numbers define the state of the electron.
•Describe how electron orbitals are filled according to the Aufbau principle, Pauli exclusion principle and Hund's rule.
•Calculate the wavelength of a particle using de Broglie's theory.
•Articulate the implications of the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
•Understand the relationship between the Schrödinger equation and quantum mechanics.
Reading
Archived Lecture Notes #1 (PDF), Section 3
Archived Lecture Notes #2 (PDF), Section 3
Resources
Lecture Slides (PDF - 1.7MB)
Transcript (PDF)
Lecture Summary
In this lecture, Prof. Sadoway discusses the following topics:
•Quantum numbers – define the "state" of the electron
◦n = principal quantum number
◦l = angular momentum ("shape")
◦m = magnetic quantum number
◦s = spin
•Aufbau principle, Pauli exclusion principle, Hund's rule
•de Broglie's theory – a particle can act as a wave
•Heisenberg uncertainty principle
•Schrödinger equation
Homework
Problems (PDF)
Solutions (PDF)
Textbook Problems
| [A&E] Sections | Conceptual | Numerical |
|---|---|---|
| [A&E] 6.4, "The Relationship between Energy and Mass." | none | 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 |
For Further Study
Textbook Study Materials
See the [A&E] companion website from Pearson for PowerPoint outlines of each chapter, plus online quizzes, interactive graphs and 3D molecular animations:
•Chapter 6
« Previous | Next »
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7. The Aufbau Principle; Photoelectron Spectroscopy
http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/materials-science-and-engineering/3-091sc-introduction-to-solid-state-chemistry-fall-2010/structure-of-the-atom/7.-the-aufbau-principle-photoelectron-spectroscopy/
Lecture Video
Session Overview
| Modules | Structure of the Atom |
| Concepts | ionic bonding: octet stability by electron transfer, properties of ionic compounds, ionic lattice energy, and ionization energies, electron filling order, quantum numbers (n, l, m, s), photoelectron spectroscopy |
| Keywords | Erwin Schrödinger, electron orbital, Aufbau principle, quantum numbers, wavefunction, eigenfunction, Schrödinger equation, simple harmonic oscillator, wave equation, atomic number, ionic separation, valence electrons, valence shell, average valence electron energy (AVEE), covalent bond, ionic bond, ionic compound, melting point, noble gases, valence shell occupancy, primary bond, metal, nonmetal, semimetal, metalloid |
| Chemical Substances | magnesium (Mg) |
| Applications | gas dynamics, crystals, electrometallurgy, applications of magnesium (Mg) – e.g. substitute for steel in automobiles |
Prerequisites
Before starting this session, you should be familiar with:
•Session 6: Particle-Wave Duality
Looking Ahead
Prof. Sadoway discusses ionic crystals and the Born-Haber cycle (Session 8).
Learning Objectives
After completing this session, you should be able to:
•Identify each term in the Schrödinger equation.
•Describe the differences between covalent and ionic bonding.
•Explain how ionic interactions influence ionic separations.
•State the factors that contribute to the stability of ionic compounds.
•Describe the general physical properties of ionic compounds.
•Explain how interatomic bonding in ionic, molecular, and covalent solids influences their melting points.
Reading
Archived Lecture Notes #1 (PDF), Section 4
| Book Chapters | Topics |
|---|---|
| [A&E] 6.6, "Building Up the Periodic Table." | Electron spin: the fourth quantum number; the Pauli principle; electron configurations of the elements |
| [A&E] 7.3, "Energetics of Ion Formation." | Ionization energies; electron affinities; electronegativity |
Resources
Lecture Slides (PDF - 1.1MB)
Transcript (PDF)
Lecture Summary
In this lecture, Prof. Sadoway discusses the following topics:
•n+l rule for filling orbitals. Fill in ascending n.
◦1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s
•Measurement of ionization energies
◦Peak height tells number of electrons in shell
◦Energy tells shell (n)
•Average valence electron energy (AVEE)
For Further Study
Textbook Study Materials
See the [A&E] companion website from Pearson for PowerPoint outlines of each chapter, plus online quizzes, interactive graphs and 3D molecular animations:
•Chapter 6
•Chapter 7
====================================================
Self-Assessment: Structure of the Atom
http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/materials-science-and-engineering/3-091sc-introduction-to-solid-state-chemistry-fall-2010/structure-of-the-atom/self-assessment-structure-of-the-atom/
Exam Help Session Videos
In these videos, 3.091 teaching assistants review some of the exam problems, demonstrating their approach to solutions, and noting some common mistakes made by students.
This self-assessment page completes the Structure of the Atom module, and covers material from the following sessions.
- Session 1: Introduction to Solid State Chemistry
- Session 2: The Periodic Table
- Session 3: Atomic Models: Rutherford & Bohr
- Session 4: Matter/Energy Interactions: Atomic Spectra, Quantum Numbers
- Session 5: Electron Shell Model & Quantum Numbers
- Session 6: Particle-Wave Duality
- Session 7: The Aufbau Principle, Photoelectron Spectroscopy
» Clip 2: Exam 1, Problem 2 (20 min)
» Transcript (PDF)
» Clip 3: Exam 1, Problem 4 (14 min)
» Transcript (PDF)
» Clip 4: Exam 1, Problem 6 (16 min)
» Transcript (PDF)
» Clip 5: Exam 2, Problem 2 (27 min)
» Transcript (PDF)
Download the complete lectures from this course:
» iTunes U
» Internet Archive
Supplemental Exam Problems and Solutions
These additional exam problems from prior years' classes are offered for further study.
•Supplemental exam problems (PDF)
•Supplemental exam solutions key (PDF)
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8. Ionic Crystals; Born-Haber Cycle
http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/materials-science-and-engineering/3-091sc-introduction-to-solid-state-chemistry-fall-2010/bonding-and-molecules/8.-ionic-crystals-born-haber-cycle/
Lecture Video
Session Overview
| Modules | Bonding and Molecules |
| Concepts | ionic bonding: octet stability by electron sharing, energy of ion pairs vs. ion lattice, and properties of ionic crystals, enthalpy of reaction: Hess's law, Born-Haber cycle |
| Keywords | Born exponent, cation, anion, covalent bond, ionic bond, valence shell electron pair repulsion model (VSEPR), interionic separation, crystal array, omnidirectional bond, unsaturated bond, Avogadro's number, electrostatic energy, ionic solid, Madelung constant, melting point, boiling point, electrical insulator, hardness, brittle, soluble, polar solvent, noble gas, ionic liquid, photon, transparency, binding energy, hybridized bond, elasticity, enthalpy, ionization energy, sublimation, electron affinity, lattice energy, bonding electron, nonbonding electron, molecular architecture |
| Chemical Substances | sodium chloride (NaCl), manganese (Mn), sodium (Na), potassium (K), silver iodide (AgI), neon (Ne), magnesium oxide (MgO), aluminum (Al), aluminum oxide (Al2O3), cryolite (Na3AlF6) |
| Applications | design of thermal abrasion resistance materials, design of inert anode materials |
Prerequisites
Before starting this session, you should be familiar with:
•Octet stability and what it means in terms of shell filling; ionic bonding and its formation as a result of Coulombic attraction between a cation and an anion (Session 7)
Looking Ahead
Prof. Sadoway discusses the shortcomings of ionic bonding and Lewis's concept of shell filling by electron sharing including the Lewis dot notation (Session 9); and returns to the valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) model in Session 11: The Shapes of Molecules.
Learning Objectives
After completing this session, you should be able to:
•Describe quantitatively the energetic factors and characteristics involved in the formation of an ionic bond.
•Understand the valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) model.
•Sketch the potential energy as a function of inter-ionic separation.
•List the properties of ionic crystals, and relate them to the lattice energy.
•Explain what features of a crystal are reflected in its Madelung constant.
•Understand that the energy change in chemical reactions is path independent.
•Define electron affinity.
Reading
Archived Lecture Notes #1 (PDF), Sections 6, 7
Archived Lecture Notes #2 (PDF), Sections 1, 2
| Book Chapters | Topics |
|---|---|
| [A&E] 7.3, "Energetics of Ion Formation." | Ionization energies; electron affinities; electronegativity |
| [A&E] 8.1, "An Overview of Chemical Bonding." | Review of chemical bonding; comparison of covalent and ionic bonds |
| [A&E] 8.2, "Ionic Bonding." | Electrostatic attraction and repulsion; potential energy at the bond distance |
| [A&E] 8.3, "Lattice Energies in Ionic Solids." | Calculating lattice energies; the relationship between lattice energies and physical properties; the Born-Haber cycle; predicting the stability of ionic compounds |
| [A&E] 12.5, "Correlation between Bonding and the Properties of Solids." | Ionic solids; molecular solids; covalent solids; metallic solids |
Resources
Lecture Slides (PDF - 1.2MB)Transcript (PDF)
Lecture Summary
In this lecture, Prof. Sadoway discusses the following topics:•Energetics of pair attractions ◦Energy gained upon converting a gas of ion pairs to a crystal array
◦Attraction energy
◦Madelung's constant
•Transparent materials
•Hess's Law – energy change in a chemical reaction is path independent
•Hybridized bonding in molecules
This lecture also introduces the valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) model, properties of covalent (saturated, directional) and ionic bonds, rules for determining molecular shapes, and the classification of each electron as a bonding electron (B) or a nonbonding electron (NB). Equal bond energies imply equal spatial disposition, and the electronic structure dictates bond disposition, which dictates molecular architecture.
Homework
Problems (PDF)
Solutions (PDF)
Textbook Problems
| [A&E] Sections | Conceptual | Numerical |
|---|---|---|
| [A&E] 8.3, "Lattice Energies in Ionic Solids." | 7, 9 | 4, 5, 6 |
| [A&E] 8.4, "Lewis Electron Dot Structures." | 2 | none |
| [A&E] 8.5, "Lewis Structures and Covalent Bonding." | 3 | 7, 9, 13, 18 |
| [A&E] 8.6, "Exceptions to the Octet Rule." | 2 | 4 |
| [A&E] 9.1, "Predicting the Geometry of Molecules and Polyatomic Ions." | none | 1, 5 |
For Further Study
Textbook Study Materials
See the [A&E] companion website from Pearson for PowerPoint outlines of each chapter, plus online quizzes, interactive graphs and 3D molecular animations:•Chapter 7
•Chapter 8
•Chapter 12
====================================================
9. Drawing Lewis Structures
http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/materials-science-and-engineering/3-091sc-introduction-to-solid-state-chemistry-fall-2010/bonding-and-molecules/9.-drawing-lewis-structures/
Lecture Video
Session Overview
| Modules | Bonding and Molecules |
| Concepts | Lewis structures: octet stability, partial charge, bonding and nonbonding electrons, electronegativity: polar bonds and polar molecules, ionic character of covalent bonds, Coulomb's law |
| Keywords | cation, anion, Madelung constant, enthalpy, valence electron, Gilbert Lewis, ionization, isoelectronic, metal, nonmetal, ionic bond, electron transfer, electron sharing, covalent bond, percent ionic character, homonuclear bond, heteronuclear bond, triple bond, dative bond, s and p orbitals, Lewis structures, Linus Pauling, hybrid orbital, crystallization energy, bond energy, charge displacement, dipole moment, polar covalency, electronegativity, polar bond, polar molecule |
| Chemical Substances | sodium (Na), chloride (Cl), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), lithium (Li), beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg), aluminum (Al), silicon (Si), hydrogen (H), helium (He), sulfuryl chloride (SO2Cl2), methane (CH4), magnesium chloride (MgCl2), hydrogen fluoride (HF), hydrogen chloride (HCl), sodium chloride (NaCl), Freon-12 |
| Applications | capacitors, refrigerant, compressor design |
Prerequisites
Before starting this session, you should be familiar with:
•Hybridized bonding in molecules, VSEPR, properties of covalent bond, electron domain theory (Session 8)
Looking Ahead
Prof. Sadoway discusses hybridized and molecular orbitals along with paramagnetism (Session 10).
Learning Objectives
After completing this session, you should be able to:
•Sketch the Lewis structure for a given compound.
•Explain how octet stability is satisfied by electron sharing and electron transfer.
•Understand how electron states can be mixed to form hybrid orbitals.
•Define electronegativity and dipole moment.
•Calculate the percent ionic character of a heteronuclear bond.
•Explain how polar bonds may be present in polar and nonpolar molecules.
Reading
Archived Lecture Notes #2 (PDF), Section 3
| Book Chapters | Topics |
|---|---|
| [A&E] 7.3, "Energetics of Ion Formation." | Ionization energies; electron affinities; electronegativity |
| [A&E] 8.4, "Introduction to Lewis Dot Structures." | Creating a Lewis dot symbol; the octet rule |
| [A&E] 8.5, "Lewis Structures and Covalent Bonding." | Using electron structures to describe covalent bonding; using Lewis electron structures to explain stoichiometry; using formal charges to distinguish between Lewis structures; resonance structures |
| [A&E] 8.6, "Exceptions to the Octet Rule." | Odd number of electrons; more than an octet of electrons; fewer than an octet of electrons |
| [A&E] 8.8, "Properties of Covalent Bonds." | Bond order; the relationship between bond order and bond energy; the relationship between molecular structure and bond energy |
| [A&E] 8.9, "Polar Covalent Bonds." | Bond polarity; dipole moments |
Resources
Lecture Slides (PDF - 2.9MB)
Transcript (PDF)Lecture Slides (PDF - 2.9MB)
Lecture Summary
Prof. Sadoway discusses the following concepts:•Problems with ionic bonding for diatomic molecules
•G. N. Lewis – shell filling by electron sharing ◦Lewis dot notation
◦Cooperative use of valence electrons to achieve octet stability = covalent bonds
•Ionic bond = electron transfer
•Covalent bond = electron sharing (directional)
•Carbon ◦s-orbitals "merge" with p-orbitals – sp3 hybridized
◦Results in 4 unpaired electrons, ready to bond
•Energy of heteronuclear bonds
•Percent ionic character
•Polar bonding
Homework
Problems (PDF)
Solutions (PDF)
====================================================
10. Hybridized & Molecular Orbitals; Paramagnetism
http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/materials-science-and-engineering/3-091sc-introduction-to-solid-state-chemistry-fall-2010/bonding-and-molecules/10.-hybridized-molecular-orbitals-paramagnetism/
Lecture Video
Session Overview
| Modules | Structure of the Atom |
| Concepts | electron orbital filling: Aufbau principle, Pauli exclusion principle, and Hund's rule, photoelectron spectroscopy, average valence electron energy, quantum mechanics: wave/particle duality, Heisenberg uncertainty principle, Schrödinger equation |
| Keywords | Louis de Broglie, Werner Heisenberg, Heisenberg uncertainty principle, Aufbau principle, Wolfgang Pauli, Pauli exclusion principle, Friedrich Hund, Hund's rule, Erwin Schrödinger, Schrödinger equation, quantum number, principal quantum number, angular momentum, magnetic quantum number, electron filling order, electron occupancy, orbital degeneracy, electron configuration, photon, standing wave, destructive interference, constructive interference, metal crystals, x-ray analysis, electron diffraction, matter waves, simple harmonic oscillator, wave equation, eigenfunction, radial probability density, nodes, nodal plane, spectral line splitting, electron spin |
| Chemical Substances | carbon (C), hydrogen (H) |
| Applications | ray optics, wave mechanics |
====================================================
11. The Shapes of Molecules
http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/materials-science-and-engineering/3-091sc-introduction-to-solid-state-chemistry-fall-2010/bonding-and-molecules/11.-the-shapes-of-molecules/
Lecture Video
Session Overview
| Modules | Bonding and Molecules |
| Concepts | shapes of molecules: valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR), sigma and pi bonds, and octet stability |
| Keywords | bonding electron, nonbonding electron, hybridized orbital, linear combination of atomic orbitals–molecular orbitals (LCAO-MO), valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR), octahedral, square pyramidal, square planar, trigonal bipyramid, polar bond, non-polar bond, planar, see-saw conformation, dipole, refractive index, electrical conductivity, covalent bond, ionic bond, expanded octet, electron domain, lone pair, molecular skeleton, Lewis structure, bonding orbital, sigma bond, pi bond, triple bond, octet rule |
| Chemical Substances | ethylene (C2H4), methane (CH4), carbon (C), acetylene (C2H2), titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), bromine pentafluoride (BrF5), iodine tetrafluoride (IF4-) |
| Applications | None |
====================================================
12. Intermolecular Forces
http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/materials-science-and-engineering/3-091sc-introduction-to-solid-state-chemistry-fall-2010/bonding-and-molecules/12.-intermolecular-forces/
Lecture Video
Session Overview
| Modules | Bonding and Molecules |
| Concepts | secondary bonding, permanent and induced dipoles (London dispersion/van der Waals), hydrogen bonding, polarizability of molecules |
| Keywords | permanent dipole, induced dipole, hydrogen bond, polarity, London dispersion, electronegativity, melting point, boiling point, intermolecular bond, solid, liquid, gas, van der Waals force, secondary bond, dipole moment, polarizability, state of aggregation, Fritz London, Johann van der Waals |
| Chemical Substances | hydrochloric acid (HCl), argon (Ar), iodine (I2), methane (CH4), helium (He), propane (C3H8), octane (C8H18), eicosane (C20H42), hydrofluoric acid (HF), ammonia (NH3), water (H2O) |
| Applications | liquid water supports life; methane sea on Titan; states of hydrocarbons at STP |
====================================================
Self-Assessment: Bonding and Molecules
http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/materials-science-and-engineering/3-091sc-introduction-to-solid-state-chemistry-fall-2010/bonding-and-molecules/self-assessment/
These additional exam problems from prior years' classes are offered for further study.
•Supplemental exam problems (PDF)•Supplemental exam solutions key (PDF - 1.4MB)
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13. Band Theory of Solids
http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/materials-science-and-engineering/3-091sc-introduction-to-solid-state-chemistry-fall-2010/electronic-materials/13-band-theory-of-solids/
Lecture Video
Session Overview
| Modules | Electronic Materials |
| Concepts | properties of metals and insulators, band theory of solids (Drude; Bloch; Heitler and London), band gaps in metals, semiconductors, and insulators |
| Keywords | metallic bonding, free electron gas, band gap, electrical conductivity, Bloch wave, photoexcitation, charge carrier, metal, insulator, semiconductor, thermal conductivity, valence band, conduction band, antibonding orbital, bonding orbital, carrier mobility, absorption edge, thermal excitation, electron, hole, current, Paul Drude, Felix Bloch, Walter Heitler, Fritz London |
| Chemical Substances | copper (Cu), beryllium (Be), diamond (C), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn), lead (Pb) |
| Applications | photovoltaics, photosensors, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), temperature sensors |
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14. Semiconductors
http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/materials-science-and-engineering/3-091sc-introduction-to-solid-state-chemistry-fall-2010/electronic-materials/14-semiconductors/
Lecture Video
Session Overview
| Modules | Electronic Materials |
| Concepts | band gaps in metals, semiconductors, and insulators, thermal excitation, photoexcitation, the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution, intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors, doped materials, compound semiconductors |
| Keywords | Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution, donor level, charge carrier, bias voltage, semiconductor, n-type, p-type, silicon, germanium, carrier mobility, band gap, intrinsic semiconductor, extrinsic semiconductor, dopant, conductivity, photoexcitation, thermal excitation, valence band, conduction band, pair generation, aliovalent, supervalent, electron, hole, James Clerk Maxwell, Ludwig Boltzmann |
| Chemical Substances | silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), phosphorous (P), gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium phosphide (GaP) |
| Applications | light-emitting diodes (LEDs) in traffic lights and electronics, CD/DVD optical discs (Blu-Ray), photosensors, point-junction transistors, microchips in computers (Pentium) and cell phones |
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Self-Assessment: Electronic Materials
http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/materials-science-and-engineering/3-091sc-introduction-to-solid-state-chemistry-fall-2010/electronic-materials/self-assessment-electronic-materials/
» Clip 1: Exam 2, Problem 3 (20 min)
» Transcript (PDF)
Supplemental Exam Problems and Solutions
These additional exam problems from prior years’ classes are offered for further study.
•Supplemental exam problems (PDF)» Transcript (PDF)
Supplemental Exam Problems and Solutions
These additional exam problems from prior years’ classes are offered for further study.
•Supplemental exam solutions key (PDF)
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15. Introduction to Crystallography
http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/materials-science-and-engineering/3-091sc-introduction-to-solid-state-chemistry-fall-2010/crystalline-materials/15-introduction-to-crystallography/
Lecture Video
Session Overview
| Modules | Electronic Materials, Crystalline Materials |
| Concepts | p-n junction, introduction to the solid state, the 7 crystal systems, the 14 Bravais lattices, properties of cubic crystals: simple cubic, face-centered cubic, body-centered cubic, and diamond cubic |
| Keywords | Electronic Materialssubvalent, aliovalent, supervalent, conduction band, valence band, semiconductor, silicon, dopant, thermal excitation, n-type, p-type, acceptor level, charge carrier, p-n junctionCrystalline Materialscrystal, glass, amorphous solid, ordered solid, long-range order, Bravais lattice, crystal system, point group, translation, rotation, symmetry plane, degree of symmetry, crystal basis, unit cell, face-centered cubic, simple cubic, body-centered cubic, hexagonal close-packed, rock salt structure, diamond cubic, birefringence, crystallography, nearest neighbor, Auguste Bravais, René Haüy, Robert Hooke, Christiaan Huygens, Nicolaus Steno |
| Chemical Substances | Electronic Materialssilicon (Si), boron (B), diamond (C)Crystalline Materialsglass, obsidian, quartz, calcite, tin (Sn), basalt, beryl, fluorite, gold (Au), aluminum (Al), copper (Cu), platinum (Pt), methane ice (CH4), rock salt (NaCl) |
| Applications | Electronic Materialstransistors, diodes, current rectificationCrystalline Materialscannonball stacking, tiling of 2D surfaces, fiber optics coupling, optical beam-splitter, colored gold |
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16. Crystallographic Notation & X-Rays
http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/materials-science-and-engineering/3-091sc-introduction-to-solid-state-chemistry-fall-2010/crystalline-materials/16-crystallographic-notation-x-rays/
Lecture Video
Session Overview
| Modules | Crystalline Materials |
| Concepts | crystal coordinate systems, Miller indices, introduction to x-rays, generation of x-rays |
| Keywords | Bravais lattice, crystal system, unit cell, face-centered cubic, simple cubic, body-centered cubic, Miller indices, crystallography, crystallographic notation, lattice constant, close-packing, packing density, lattice point, interplanar spacing, gas discharge tube, x-ray tube, target anode, discovery of x-rays, scintillation screen, characteristic emission lines, Kα, Kβ, Lα, Lβ, William H. Miller, Wilhelm Röntgen |
| Chemical Substances | barium platinum cyanide (BaPt(CN)4), copper (Cu), brass (Cu-Zn), zinc (Zn), wood, steel |
| Applications | x-ray spectroscopy, medical/dental x-rays, quality assurance of welds, airport baggage scans |
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17. X-Ray Emission & Absorption
http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/materials-science-and-engineering/3-091sc-introduction-to-solid-state-chemistry-fall-2010/crystalline-materials/17-x-ray-emission-absorption/
Lecture Video
Session Overview
| Modules | Crystalline Materials |
| Concepts | characterization of atomic structure, Moseley's law, generation of x-rays, x-ray diffraction |
| Keywords | characteristic emission lines, Kα, Kβ, Lα, Lβ, atomic spectra, quantized spectrum, continuous spectrum, proton number, atomic number, atomic mass, periodicity, periodic table, x-ray tube, lanthanide series, Moseley's law, screening factor, Bremsstrahlung, braking radiation, ballistic electrons, target anode, cold cathode, hot cathode, scattering angle, Duane-Hunt law, Henry Moseley, William Coolidge |
| Chemical Substances | calcium (Ca), titanium (Ti), vanadium (V), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), zinc (Zn), brass, argon (Ar), potassium (K), tellurium (Te), iodine (I), uranium (U), neptunium (Np), lanthanide series (La-Lu), molybdenum (Mo), lead (Pb), beryllium (Be) |
| Applications | organization of the modern periodic table, electron-beam welding, lead shielding, analysis of paintings |
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18. X-Ray Diffraction Techniques
http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/materials-science-and-engineering/3-091sc-introduction-to-solid-state-chemistry-fall-2010/crystalline-materials/18-x-ray-diffraction-techniques/
Lecture Video
Session Overview
| Modules | Crystalline Materials |
| Concepts | Braggs' law, x-ray diffraction of crystals: diffractometry, Laue, and Debye-Scherrer, crystal symmetry and selection rules |
| Keywords | x-ray diffraction, Braggs’ law, angle of incidence, angle of reflection, constructive interference, destructive interference, crest, trough, amplitude, wavelength, phase, monochromatic, coherent light, incoherent light, order of reflection, index of refraction, collimator, diffraction peak, rotational symmetry, Laue diffraction, quasicrystal, translational symmetry, long-range order, x-ray crystallography, Penrose tiles, William Henry Bragg, William Lawrence Bragg, Max von Laue, Roger Penrose, Peter Debye, Peter Scherrer, Dan Shechtman |
| Chemical Substances | copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), silicon (Si), aluminum-manganese alloy (Al-Mn) |
| Applications | growth of single-crystal Si, identification of planes and symmetry in crystals, Penrose tiles |
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19. Point & Line Defects
http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/materials-science-and-engineering/3-091sc-introduction-to-solid-state-chemistry-fall-2010/crystalline-materials/19-point-and-line-defects/
Lecture Video
Session Overview
| Modules | Crystalline Materials |
| Concepts | defects in crystals: point defects, line defects |
| Keywords | point defect, line defect, substitutional impurity, interstitial impurity, vacancy, self interstitial, ionic defect, Hope Diamond, Schottky defect, Frenkel defect, F-center, charge neutrality, edge dislocation, screw dislocation, dislocation motion, bubble raft model, chemical imperfection, structural imperfection, formation energy, entropy factor, stoichiometric unit, effective charge, Kröger-Vink notation |
| Chemical Substances | aluminum (Al), steel, diamond, doped silicon, LaNi5, copper (Cu), rock salt (NaCl), zirconia (ZrO2) |
| Applications | aluminum alloys for soda cans, n-and p-type semiconductors, steel, hydrogen embrittlement of steel, Hope diamond, colored gold, hydrogen storage |
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20. Line, Interface & Bulk Defects
https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4183788015120103681#editor/target=post;postID=1241334796546673416;onPublishedMenu=allposts;onClosedMenu=allposts;postNum=0;src=link
Lecture Video
Session Overview
| Module | Crystalline Materials |
| Concepts | defects in crystals: line defects, interfacial defects, grain boundaries, and voids, motion of dislocations, effect of impurities on solid-state material properties |
| Keywords | yield stress, strain, shear stress, line defect, surface energy, edge dislocation, screw dislocation, dislocation motion, catalysis, corrosion, grain boundary, annealing, vacancy, single-crystal, polycrystalline, precipitation strengthening, ductility, slip, voids, solution hardening, elastic deformation, plastic deformation, chemical metallurgy, physical metallurgy, Hooke’s law, fracture, close-packed, dislocation glide, toughness, hardness, brittle |
| Chemical Substances | steel, aluminum-copper alloy (Al-Cu), silica (SiO2), calcia (CaO), alumina (Al2O3) |
| Applications | aluminum can, steel production, aluminum-copper for airplanes, rivets on the Titanic |
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Self-Assessment: Crystalline Materials
http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/materials-science-and-engineering/3-091sc-introduction-to-solid-state-chemistry-fall-2010/crystalline-materials/self-assessment-crystalline-materials/
Exam Help Session Videos
In these videos, 3.091 teaching assistants review some of the exam problems, demonstrating their approach to solutions, and noting some common mistakes made by students.
» Clip 4: Exam 3, Problem 2B (5 min)
» Transcript (PDF)
Supplemental Exam Problems and Solutions
These additional exam problems from prior years' classes are offered for further study.
» Transcript (PDF)
Supplemental Exam Problems and Solutions
These additional exam problems from prior years' classes are offered for further study.
•Supplemental exam solutions key (PDF - 1.1MB)
====================================================
