Planning practice guidance for onshore oil and gas

Planning practice guidance for onshore oil and gas

https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/256357/Publication_Planning_practice_guidance_for_onshore_oil_and_gas.pdf

July, 2013

Department for Communities and Local Government

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July 2013
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What is the purpose of this guidance?

1.Mineral resources are concentrations of minerals which can be removed from the earth’s crust, whether by underground or surface working, in an economically viable and environmentally acceptable manner for use by society. They make an essential contribution to the country’s prosperity and quality of life.

2.Oil and gas (hydrocarbons) underpin key aspects of modern society, supplying energy to power industry and heat homes, fuel for transport to carry goods and people all over the world, and raw materials to produce everyday items. Hydrocarbons remain an important part of the UK’s energy mix whilst the country transitions to low carbon energy supplies.

3.This guidance provides advice on the planning issues associated with the three phases of extraction of hydrocarbons. It will be kept under review and should be read alongside other planning guidance and the National Planning Policy Framework.

4.This guidance is not intended to replace the need for judgement by minerals planning authorities and those making planning applications. Nor is it intended to be a source of definitive legal advice. Those seeking to make applications for oil and gas development, or taking decisions on such applications, are responsible for obtaining and acting on their own legal advice.

Planning Policy on Hydrocarbons

5.Paragraphs 142 to 149 of the National Planning Policy Framework set out minerals planning policy. It makes clear that minerals planning authorities should identify and include policies for extraction of mineral resource of local and national importance in their area. This includes both conventional hydrocarbons and unconventional hydrocarbons such as shale gas and coalbed methane (see Annex A). It also expects minerals planning authorities to ensure that mineral extraction does not have an unacceptable adverse impact on the natural or historic environment or human health. Unconventional hydrocarbons are emerging as a form of energy supply, and there is a pressing need to establish – through exploratory drilling - whether or not there are sufficient recoverable quantities of unconventional hydrocarbons present to facilitate economically viable full scale production.

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Why is there a separate minerals planning process?

6.Planning for the supply of minerals, including hydrocarbons, has a number of special characteristics that are not present in other forms of development:

•minerals can only be worked (i.e. extracted) where they naturally occur, so location options for the economically viable and environmentally acceptable extraction of minerals may be limited. This has implications for the preparation of local minerals plans;
•working is a temporary use of land, although it often takes place over a long period of time;
•working may have adverse and positive environmental effects, but most adverse effects can be mitigated;
•since extraction of minerals is a continuous process of development, there is a requirement for routine monitoring, and if necessary, enforcement to secure compliance with conditions that are necessary to mitigate impacts of mineral working operations; and
•following working, surface land should be restored to make it suitable for beneficial after-use; and

7.The minerals planning authority is the County Council in two-tier parts of the country, the Unitary Authority, or the National Park Authority.

8.Onshore extraction of hydrocarbons may only take place if the operator has first obtained a petroleum licence and subsequently obtained both planning permission and other necessary permits and approvals.
The Phases of onshore hydrocarbon
extraction

What are the phases of onshore hydrocarbon extraction?
9.There are three phases of onshore hydrocarbon extraction: exploration, testing (appraisal) and production.
When is planning permission required for the extraction of hydrocarbons?
10.Planning permission is required for each phase of hydrocarbon extraction, although some initial seismic work may have deemed planning consent under Part 2 of Schedule 22 to the Town and Country Planning (General Permitted Development) Order 1995 (see http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1995/418/schedule/2/made)

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i) Exploratory phase

What is the exploratory phase of hydrocarbon extraction?
11.The exploratory phase seeks to acquire geological data to establish whether hydrocarbons are present. It may involve seismic surveys, exploratory drilling and, in the case of shale gas, hydraulic fracturing.

What geological data will operators collect before carrying out any exploratory drilling?
12.It is a matter for individual operators to determine how much preliminary data is necessary before undertaking exploratory drilling. However, preliminary data which the operator might obtain to consider the most appropriate locations for exploratory drilling include:
•existing geological and other relevant data to gather information about rock formations under the earth’s surface;
•information from earlier drilling for oil, water, coal or other minerals and mining or quarrying activities;
•information on aquifers and groundwater resources; seismic reflection, gravity and magnetic surveys and remote sensing data e.g. satellite photographs, and results of previous seismic surveys.
Why carry out seismic surveys?

13.Seismic surveys are essential to understand the structure under the earth’s surface and be able to predict the depths of the key target formations. Operators will often wish to conduct new surveys with the latest technology, even where previous survey data exists. Among other things, this helps to determine the most promising target for drilling.
How long does exploratory drilling last?

14.For conventional hydrocarbons, exploration drilling onshore is a short-term, but intensive, activity. Typically, site construction, drilling and site clearance will take between 12 to 25 weeks.

15.For unconventional hydrocarbons exploratory drilling may take considerably longer, especially if there is going to be hydraulic fracturing and, in the case of coalbed methane, removing water from the coal seam.

ii) Appraisal Phase
What is the appraisal phase of hydrocarbon extraction?

16.The appraisal phase takes place following exploration when the existence of oil or gas has been proved, but the operator needs further information about the extent of the deposit or its production characteristics to establish whether it can be economically exploited.

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What does the appraisal phase involve?
17.The appraisal phase can take several forms including additional seismic work, longer-term flow tests, or the drilling of further wells. This may involve additional drilling at another site away from the exploration site or additional wells at the original exploration site. For unconventional hydrocarbons it may involve further hydraulic fracturing followed by flow testing to establish the strength of the resource and its potential productive life. Much will depend on the size and complexity of the hydrocarbon reservoir involved.

iii) Production phase
What is the production phase of hydrocarbon extraction?

18.The production phase normally involves the drilling of a number of wells. This may be wells used at the sites at the exploratory and/or appraisal phases of hydrocarbon development, or from a new site. Associated equipment such as pipelines, processing facilities and temporary storage tanks are also likely to be required.

How will any additional sites for appraisal or production be determined?

19.Any additional sites, following exploration, will be selected by the operator taking account of what they have learnt or discovered through previous phases. In doing so, they should take also account of their ability to access the resource whilst seeking to minimise or avoid any adverse environmental and amenity issues.

What is the production life of an oil or gas field?

20.Production life of an oil or gas field can be up to 20 years, possibly more. When production ceases, the facilities should be dismantled and the sites restored to their former use, or, in some circumstances, an appropriate new use.
Planning for hydrocarbon extraction

How should mineral planning authorities plan for hydrocarbon extraction?

21.Mineral planning authorities are encouraged to make appropriate provision for hydrocarbons in local minerals plans through:
•use of published data on information on the location of conventional and unconventional hydrocarbons, for example: https://www.gov.uk/oil-and-gas-onshore-exploration-and-production;
•use of ordnance survey based proposals maps; and
•available data on existing wells.(see https://www.og.decc.gov.uk/pls/wons/wdep0100.qryWell)

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This approach will allow minerals planning authorities to highlight areas where proposals for hydrocarbon extraction may come forward, as well as managing potentially conflicting objectives for use of land.

In what areas can hydrocarbon extraction take place?

22.The exploratory, appraisal or production phase of hydrocarbon extraction can only take place in areas where the Department of Energy and Climate Change have issued a licence under the Petroleum Act 1998 (Petroleum Licence). Details of licensed areas may be found at:
https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/205261/landfield_lics.pdf
What are minerals planning authorities expected to include in their local plans on hydrocarbons?

23.Where minerals planning authorities consider it is necessary to update their local plan, they are expected to include the following:
•Petroleum Licence Areas on their proposals maps;
•Criteria-based policies for each of the exploration, appraisal and production phases of hydrocarbon extraction. These policies should set clear guidance and criteria for the location and assessment of hydrocarbon extraction within the Petroleum Licence Areas.

Can mineral planning authorities include site-specific locations in their local plans?

24.Existing hydrocarbon extraction sites should be identified in local plans where appropriate, and minerals planning authorities may include specific locations should the onshore oil and gas industry wish to promote specific sites.

Should minerals planning authorities be safeguarding areas for the extraction of hydrocarbons?

25.There is normally no need to create mineral safeguarding areas specifically for extraction of hydrocarbons given the depth of the resource, the ability to utilise directional drilling and the small surface area requirements of well pads.
The Planning Application Process

What is the role of planning in obtaining permissions for drilling wells?

26.Planning permission is one of the main regulatory requirements that operators must meet before drilling a well, for both conventional and unconventional hydrocarbons. A flow chart setting out the process for drilling an exploratory well, and how these regulatory regimes interact, is set out at Annex B.

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Who are the key regulators for hydrocarbon extraction?

27.The key regulators for hydrocarbon extraction are:
a) Department of Energy and Climate Change – issues Petroleum Licences, gives consent to drill under the Licence once other permissions and approvals are in place, and have responsibility for assessing risk of and monitoring seismic activity, as well as granting consent to flaring or venting;
b) Minerals Planning Authorities – grant permission for the location of any wells and wellpads, and impose conditions to ensure that the impact on the use of the land is acceptable;
c) Environment Agency – protect water resources (including groundwater aquifers), ensure appropriate treatment and disposal of mining waste, emissions to air, and suitable treatment and manage any naturally occurring radioactive materials; and
d) Health and Safety Executive - regulates the safety aspects of all phases of extraction, in particular responsibility for ensuring the appropriate design and construction of a well casing for any borehole.

What other bodies may be involved in the process of consenting hydrocarbon extraction?

28.Other bodies which may be involved in the consenting of the process include:
a) the Coal Authority, whose permission will be required should drilling go through a coal seam;
b) Natural England, who may need to issue European Protected Species Licences in certain circumstances;
c) the British Geological Survey, who need to be notified by licensees of their intention to undertake drilling and, upon completion of drilling, must also receive drilling records and cores; and
d) Hazardous Substances Authorities, who may need to provide hazardous substances consents.
There may also be additional consents and orders, such as stopping up rights of way or temporary road orders, which must be obtained.

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What is the relationship between planning and other regulatory regimes?

29.The Planning and other regulatory regimes are separate but complementary. The planning system controls the development and use of land in the public interest and, as stated in paragraphs 120 and 122 of the National Planning Policy Framework, this includes ensuring that new development is appropriate for its location taking account of the effects (including cumulative effects) of pollution on health, the natural environment or general amenity, and the potential sensitivity of the area or proposed development to adverse effects from pollution. In doing so the focus of the planning system should be on whether the development itself is an acceptable use of the land, and the impacts of those uses, rather than any control processes, health and safety issues or emissions themselves where these are subject to approval under other regimes. Minerals planning authorities should assume that these non-planning regimes will operate effectively.

What are the principal environmental issues of hydrocarbon extraction that should be addressed by minerals planning authorities?

30.The principal issues that mineral planning authorities should address, bearing in mind that not all issues will be relevant at every site, to the same degree, include:
•noise associated with the operation
•dust
•air quality
•lighting
•visual intrusion into the local setting and the wider landscape caused by any the placement of any building or structure within the application site area
•landscape character
•archaeological and heritage features
•traffic
•risk of contamination to land
•soil resources
•the impact on best and most versatile agricultural land
•flood risk
•land stability/subsidence
•internationally, nationally or locally designated wildlife sites, protected habitats and species, and ecological networks
•nationally protected geological and geomorphological sites and features
•site restoration and aftercare

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What hydrocarbon issues can minerals planning authorities leave to other regulatory regimes?

31.Some issues may be covered by other regulatory regimes but may be relevant to minerals planning authorities in specific circumstances. For example, the Environment Agency has responsibility for ensuring that risk to groundwater is appropriately identified and mitigated. Where an Environmental Statement is required, minerals planning authorities can and do play a role in preventing pollution of the water environment from hydrocarbon extraction, principally through controlling the methods of site construction and operation, robustness of storage facilities, and in tackling surface water drainage issues.

32.There exist a number of issues which are covered by other regulatory regimes and minerals planning authorities should assume that these regimes will operate effectively. Whilst these issues may be put before minerals planning authorities, they should not need to carry out their own assessment as they can rely on the assessment of other regulatory bodies. However, before granting planning permission they will need to be satisfied that these issues can or will be adequately addressed by taking the advice from the relevant regulatory body:
• Mitigation of seismic risks – the Department of Energy and Climate Change is responsible for controls, usually through the licence consent regime, to mitigate seismic risks. Seismic assessment of the geology of the area to establish the geological conditions, risk of seismic activity and mitigation measures to put in place is required by the Department of Energy and Climate Change for all hydraulic fracturing processes;
• Well design and construction – the Health and Safety Executive are responsible for enforcement of legislation concerning well design and construction. Before design and construction operators must assess and take account of the geological strata, and fluids within them, as well as any hazards that the strata may contain;
• Well integrity during operation – under health and safety legislation the integrity of the well is subject to examination by independent qualified experts throughout its operation, from design through construction and until final plugging at the end of operation;
• Operation of surface equipment on the well pad – whilst planning conditions may be imposed to prevent run-off of any liquid from the pad, and to control any impact on local amenity (such as noise), the actual operation of the site’s equipment should not be of concern to minerals planning authorities as these are controlled by the Environment Agency and the Health and Safety Executive;
• Mining waste – the Environment Agency is responsible for ensuring that extractive wastes do not harm human health and the environment. An environmental permit is required for phases of hydrocarbon extraction and this will require the operator to produce and implement a waste management plan;
• Chemical content of hydraulic fracturing fluid – this is covered by the environmental permit as operators are obliged to inform the Environment Agency of all chemicals that they may use as part of any hydraulic fracturing process;

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• Flaring or venting of any gas produced as part of the exploratory phase will be subject to Department of Energy and Climate Change controls and will be regulated by the Environment Agency. Minerals planning authorities will, however, need to consider how issues of noise and visual impact will be addressed;
• Final off-site disposal of water – Water that comes back to the surface following hydraulic fracturing may contain naturally occurring radioactive materials. Whilst storage on-site and the traffic impact of any movement of water is of clear interest to local authorities, it is the responsibility of the Environment Agency to ensure that the final treatment/disposal at suitable water treatment facilities is acceptable
• Well decommissioning/abandonment – following exploration, the well is likely to suspended and abandoned for a period of time. Health and Safety Legislation requires its design and construction that, so far as reasonably practicable, there is no unplanned escape of fluids from it. The minerals planning authority is responsible for ensuring the wells are abandoned and the site is restored.

A) Development Management procedures

How can pre-application engagement improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the planning application system?

33.Pre-application engagement between the prospective operator and other interested parties offers significant potential to improve both the efficiency and effectiveness of the planning application system. This can be achieved by:
•providing an understanding of the relevant planning policies and other material considerations associated with the relevant phase of hydrocarbon extraction;
•working collaboratively and openly with interested parties at an early stage to identify, understand and seek to resolve issues associated with the relevant phase of hydrocarbon development;
•providing an opportunity for the prospective mineral operator to demonstrate they are aware of and utilise the latest techniques;
•where relevant, discussing possible mitigation of the local impact of the proposed phase of hydrocarbon extraction including any proposals for subsequent restoration and aftercare; and
•identifying and agreeing the information required to accompany a formal planning application, thus reducing the likelihood of delays at the validation stage. This may include whether an Environmental Impact Assessment is required.
The approach to pre-application engagement needs to be tailored to the phase of hydrocarbon extraction and the issues to be addressed.

Who can be involved at the pre-application stage?
34.Pre-application engagement is a collaborative process between the prospective operator and other parties which may include: the minerals planning authority; statutory and non-statutory consultees; elected members; and local people. Each party involved has an important role to play in ensuring the efficiency and effectiveness of pre-application engagement.

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What information does a prospective applicant need to provide to the minerals planning authority at pre-application stage?

35.It is important to see the pre-application stage, between the minerals planning authority and the prospective operator, as a two-way process. It is recognised that the level of information necessary for effective pre-application engagement will vary depending on the phase of hydrocarbon extraction. In all cases, the level of information requested by the minerals planning authority needs to be proportionate to the phase of hydrocarbon extraction and the relevant stage of the operator in considering a site for extraction. At the stage of detailed discussion, a prospective operator would not necessarily be expected to provide all of the information that would accompany a formal planning application, but it needs to be sufficient information to allow the minerals planning authority to take an informed view.

What role do statutory and non-statutory consultees have at the pre-application stage?

36.Statutory consultees for planning applications play an important role at the pre-application stage of hydrocarbon extraction since they will be involved in providing advice to the minerals planning authority on a formal planning application. In the case of hydrocarbon extraction, relevant non-statutory consultees such as the Health and Safety Executive also play an important role. Pre-application discussions with statutory and relevant non-statutory consultees may also provide prospective operators with an opportunity to share information that may be relevant to obtain other permits and licences. The Environment Agency strongly recommends that prospective operators undertake pre-planning and pre-permitting discussions with them.

What can a prospective minerals operator expect from the minerals planning authority at the pre-application stage?

37.A prospective operator can expect a clear, timely and authoritative view on the merits of a proposal to extract hydrocarbons, as well as clear advice on consultation requirements and the information to be submitted with a formal planning application.

Should planning performance agreements be used for hydrocarbon extraction?

38.Minerals planning authorities and operators should seriously consider planning performance agreements where they consider the size and complexity of any proposed extraction justifies such an agreement being drawn up.

What is required to make a valid application for planning permission?

39.The submission of a valid application for planning permission requires:
•a completed application form;
•compliance with national information requirements;
•the correct application fee; and
•provision of local information requirements

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What are the national information requirements?

40.An application for planning permission for hydrocarbon extraction must be accompanied by:
•Plans and drawings;
•Ownership Certificate and Agricultural Land Declaration;
•Design and Access Statements (where required).

What plans and drawings must be submitted with a planning application?

41.Prospective mineral operators will need to submit the plans and drawings required by article 6 of the Town and Country Planning (Development Management Procedure) (England) Order 2010. Any plans or drawings must be drawn to an identified scale and plans must show the direction of north. Any location plan should be based on an up-to-date map and wherever possible scaled to fit onto A4 or A3 size paper. In some cases additional plans and drawings may be requested by the minerals planning authority through their local list of information requirements.

What is an ownership certificate?

42.A certificate which prospective minerals operators must complete that provides certain details about the ownership of the application site and confirms that an appropriate notice has been served on any other owners (and agricultural tenants).
43.An application is not valid, and therefore cannot be decided by the minerals planning authority, unless the relevant certificate has been completed. It is an offence to complete a false or misleading certificate, either knowingly or recklessly, with a maximum fine of up to £5,000.

What is the Government’s policy on local information requirements?

44.As stated in paragraph 193 of the National Planning Policy Framework, minerals planning authorities should publish a list of their information requirements for applications, which should be proportionate to the nature and scale of development proposals and reviewed on a frequent basis. Minerals planning authorities should only request supporting information that is relevant, necessary and material to the application in question.

Can minerals planning authorities request information that must be provided with a planning application when it is submitted?

45.A minerals planning authority may request supporting information but only if its requirements are specified on a formally adopted ‘local list’ which is published on its website.

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Can minerals planning authorities request any information from its local list?

46.The local list is prepared by the minerals planning authority to clarify what information is usually required for applications of a particular type, scale or location.

47.In addition to being specified on an up-to-date local list published on the minerals planning authority’s website, information requested with a particular planning application must be:
•reasonable having regard, in particular, to the nature and scale of the proposed development; and
•about a matter which it is reasonable to think will be a material consideration in the determination of the application.

What issues should minerals planning authorities include on their local list for exploration of hydrocarbons?

48.Minerals planning authorities should normally expect to include on their local list those issues for which they are, or may be responsible, for assessing, when dealing with planning applications for exploratory hydrocarbon development. This list should be consistent with the spirit of this guidance.
What constitutes an application for an exploratory well?

49.The precise nature of what is included in an application for exploration will depend in part on the applicant. The applicant and DECC will already have agreed a work programme which might include acquisition of seismic data and one or more exploratory wells as part of the exploration licence application.

50.All exploratory phases will involve drilling vertically downwards, perhaps including directional drilling. However, the exploratory phase may include horizontal drilling once the appropriate rock formation is reached, and for unconventional hydrocarbons – hydraulic fracturing.

Can vertical and horizontal drilling, including hydraulic fracturing, be included in one application for exploratory drilling?

51.As far as it is practical to do so, any application for exploratory drilling should cover as much of the exploratory activity as possible, including the likely number of wellheads and extent of drilling, to avoid further planning applications at a later date.

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B) Environmental Impact Assessment

When is an Environmental Impact Assessment required for hydrocarbon extraction?

52.The minerals planning authority should carry out a screening exercise to determine whether any proposal for onshore oil and gas extraction requires an Environmental Impact Assessment. A flow chart summarising the screening process is set out at Annex C.

53.Applications for the exploratory and appraisal phases will fall under Schedule 2 to the Town and Country planning (Environmental Impact Assessment) Regulations 2011 if they exceed the applicable threshold or any part of the development is to be carried out in a sensitive area An Environmental Impact Assessment is only required if the project is likely to have significant environmental effects.

54.Whilst all applications must be assessed on a case-by-case basis, it is unlikely that an Environmental Impact Assessment will be required for exploratory drilling operations which do not involve hydraulic fracturing unless the well pad is located in site which is unusually sensitive to limited disturbance occurring over the short period involved.

55.Applications for the production phase are also likely to fall under paragraph 2 of Schedule 2 to the 2011 Regulations, in which cases they should be screened for likely significant effects, but applications where more than 500 tonnes of oil or 500,000 cubic metres of gas will be extracted per day may fall under Schedule 1, in which case an Environmental Impact Assessment is mandatory.
When should an operator assess cumulative effects?

56.Each application (or request for a screening opinion) should be considered on its own merits. There are occasions where other existing or approved development may be relevant in determining whether significant effects are likely as a consequence of a proposed development. The minerals planning authority should always have regard to the possible cumulative effects arising from any existing or approved phases of hydrocarbon extraction. There could also be circumstances where two or more applications should be considered together. For example, where the applications in question are not directly in competition with one another, so that both or all of them might be approved, and where the overall combined environmental impact of the proposals might be greater or have different effects than the sum of their separate parts.

57.It is unlikely that cumulative impact will be an issue at the exploration phase of development, regardless of how close individual well pads are to each other.

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Should minerals planning authorities take account of the environmental effects of the production phase of hydrocarbon extraction at the exploration phase?

58.Individual applications for the exploratory phase should be considered on their own merits. They should not take account of hypothetical future activities for which consent has not yet been sought, since the further appraisal and production phases will be the subject of separate planning applications and assessments.

59.When determining applications for subsequent phases, the fact that exploratory drilling has taken place on a particular site is likely to be material in determining the suitabilty of continuing to use that site only insofar as it establishes the presence of hydrocarbon resources.

Can information used in complying with other regulatory regimes be used to inform an environmental statement?

60.Yes, information prepared as part of the high level environmental risk assessment or the preparation of the environmental permit (where required) may be used to inform, or be included as part of the environmental statement.

What is the area that an Environmental Impact Assessment must cover?

61.An Environmental Impact Assessment must cover the geographical area where the impacts occur, both above and below ground. This is likely to be a broader area than the application area.

How can the mineral operator seek advice on what issues should be covered by an Environmental Impact Assessment?

62.The mineral operator can ask the minerals planning authority for its formal opinion (scoping opinion) on the information to be supplied in the Environmental Statement. This allows the planning authority to clarify what it considers the main effects of development are likely to be and, therefore, the aspects on which the applicant’s Environmental Statement should focus.

What aspects of the environment need to be considered?

63.The list of aspects of the environment which might be significantly affected by a development is set out in paragraph 3 of Schedule 4 to the Town and Country Planning (Environmental Impact Assessment) Regulations 2011, and includes human beings; flora; fauna; soil; water; air; climate; landscape; material assets, including architectural and archaeological heritage; and the interaction between them. Among other things, consideration should also be given to the likely significant effects of the development on the environment resulting from the use of natural resources, the emission of pollutants, the creation of nuisances and the elimination of waste. In addition to the direct effects of a development, the Environmental Statement should also describe indirect, secondary, cumulative, short, medium and long-term, permanent and temporary, positive and negative effects where they are significant. These are comprehensive lists, and a particular project is unlikely give rise to all of these effects,

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and should only require full and detailed assessment, of those impacts which are likely to be significant.

What are the legal obligations on minerals planning authorities and operators with regard to European sites designated under the Birds or Habitats Directives and Sites of Special Scientific Interest?

64.Guidance on the law affecting European sites and Sites of Specific Scientific Interest is being prepared by Defra (http://www.defra.gov.uk/habitats-review/) and will replace the advice previously set out in Circular 06/05: Biodiversity and Geological Conservation (https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/biodiversity-and-geological-conservation-circular-06-2005).

C) Determining the planning application

Do minerals planning authorities need to assess demand for, or consider alternatives to oil and gas resources when determining planning applications?

65.Mineral planning authorities should not consider demand for, or consider alternatives to, oil and gas resources when determining planning applications. Government energy policy makes it clear that energy supplies should come from a variety of sources. This includes onshore oil and gas, as set out in the Government’s Annual Energy Statement, which is found at:
https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/65633/7086-annual-energy-statement-2012.pdf

What weight should be given to economic need in planning decisions?

66.Mineral extraction is essential to local and national economies. As stated in paragraph 144 of the National Planning Policy Framework, minerals planning authorities should give great weight to the benefits of minerals extraction, including to the economy, when determining planning applications.
How should mineral operators seek to minimise the impact of development upon properties and the local environment in close proximity to mineral workings?
67.Minerals operators should look to agree a programme of work with the minerals planning authority which takes account, as far as is practicable, the potential impacts on the local community and local wildlife, the proximity to occupied properties and legitimate operational considerations over the expected duration of operations.

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How should planning authorities seek to mitigate the environmental effects of mineral extraction?

68.Minerals planning authorities should use appropriate planning conditions, having regard to the issues for which they have responsibility, to mitigate against any adverse environmental impact. Some examples of model conditions covering various areas that may be associated with exploration of hydrocarbons are attached at Annex D.

Are separation distances or buffer zones acceptable?

69.Above ground separation distances are acceptable in specific circumstances where it is clear that, based on site specific assessments and other forms of mitigation measures (such as working scheme design and landscaping) a certain distance is required between the boundary of the minerals site and the adjacent development.

70.There is no standard minimum separation distance for proposals for hydrocarbon extraction. Any proposed separation distance should be effective, properly justified but reasonable, taking into account:
•the nature of the mineral extraction activity (including its duration);
•the need to avoid undue sterilisation of mineral resources,
•location and topography;
•the characteristics of the various environmental effects likely to arise; and
•the various mitigation measures that can be applied.

D) Monitoring and Enforcement

Can minerals planning authorities charge for site visits?

71.Minerals planning authorities can charge for a maximum of 8 site visits for monitoring site operations within any 12 month period. Additional site visits may be undertaken but they cannot be charged.

What powers do minerals planning authorities have to enforce mineral permissions?

72.There are a range of powers available to minerals planning authorities to take enforcement action in respect of breaches of planning control. These are set out principally in Part 7 of the Town and Country Planning Act 1990. These powers include the power under section 196A for the minerals planning authority to enter land and buildings in connection with their enforcement functions.
Aftercare and restoration

Who is responsible for restoration and aftercare of hydrocarbon extraction sites?

73.Responsibility for the restoration and aftercare of hydrocarbon extraction sites lies with the operator and, in the case of default, with the landowner.

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What are the possible forms of afteruse following hydrocarbon extraction?

74.There are many forms of use of land once minerals extraction is complete and restoration and aftercare of land is complete. These include:
•creation of new habitats and biodiversity;
•use for agriculture;
•forestry; and
•recreational activities.
The most appropriate form of afteruse will depend on a site-by-site basis following discussions between the operator and the minerals planning authority.

When should proposals for land restoration and aftercare be submitted to the mineral planning authority?

75.The operator should submit proposals for restoration and aftercare as part of the planning application.

How will the minerals planning authority ensure that applicants will deliver sound restoration and aftercare proposals?

76.Minerals planning authorities will ensure the proper restoration and aftercare of a site through imposition of suitable planning conditions and, where necessary, through section 106 Agreements. For hydrocarbon extraction sites where expected extraction is likely to last for a short period of time, it is appropriate for the minerals planning authority to impose a detailed set of planning conditions as part of the planning application.

How should minerals planning authorities frame planning conditions for restoration and aftercare?

77.Conditions must be drafted in such a way that, even if the interest of the applicant applying for permission is subsequently disposed of, the requirements for restoration and aftercare can still be fulfilled, whether by a new operator or in the case of default, by the land-owner.

78.The exact planning conditions should be framed with the intended after-use in mind, and will vary according to:
•the characteristics of the individual site;
•the intended after-use;
•the type of mineral to be worked;
•the method of working;
•the timescale of the working;
•the general character of, and planning policies for the area.

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When is a financial guarantee justified?

79.A financial guarantee to cover restoration and aftercare costs will normally only be justified in exceptional cases. Such cases include:
•for very long-term new projects where progressive reclamation is not practicable and where incremental payments into a secure fund may be made at appropriate stages in the development of site operations; and
•where there is reliable evidence of the likelihood of either financial or technical failure, but these concerns are not such as to justify refusal of permission.

80.However, where a minerals operator is contributing to an established mutual funding scheme, it should not be necessary for a minerals planning authority to seek a guarantee against possible financial failure, even in such exceptional circumstances.

How and when should mineral planning authorities seek a financial guarantee?

81.Minerals planning authorities should seek to meet any justified and reasonable concerns about financial liabilities relating to the restoration of the site through agreeing a planning obligation or voluntary agreement at the time a planning permission is given.

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Annex A: Shale Gas and coalbed methane/coal seam gas

What is shale gas?

82.Shale gas is methane found in rocks deep below the earth’s surface which had previously been considered too impermeable (‘tight’) to allow for economic recovery (See Figure 1).
What is hydraulic fracturing?

83.Hydraulic fracturing is the process of opening and/or extending existing narrow fractures or creating new ones (fractures are typically hairline in width) in gas or oil-bearing rock, which allows gas or oil to flow into wellbores to be captured.

How does the hydraulic fracturing process work?

84.During hydraulic fracturing, a mixture of water, sand and possibly some chemical additives is pumped under pressure down a borehole into the rock unit. The sand is used to prop the fractures open to increase gas extraction.

85.The borehole is lined with a steel casing and cement and a “perforating gun” is used to create perforations to allow the hydraulic fracturing fluid to be injected into the rock.

86.Plugs may be used to divide the well into smaller sections (termed stages). Stages are fractured sequentially, beginning with the stage furthest away. After the hydraulic fracturing is done, such plugs can be drilled through and the well is depressurised.

87.In this way, the system is designed to be a closed loop, so that when the high pressure is removed, the hydraulic fracturing fluid returns to the surface for treatment and storage. The flowback water also may contain salts and other dissolved minerals from the shale rock formation. Estimates vary on what percentage of the hydraulic fracturing fluid returns to the surface: from 25-75%. This wide range is explained by differences in the properties of the shale and its response to the hydraulic fracturing.

Figure 1: Shale gas extraction
Source: British Geological Survey (www.bgs.ac.uk)

20

21
Coalbed methane

What is coalbed methane?

88.Coalbed methane is methane that is extracted from unworked coal seams. For further information on the location of coalfields in England may be found at: http://coal.decc.gov.uk/en/coal/cms/publications/data/map/map.aspx.

How is coalbed methane extracted?

89.Extraction of coalbed methane is usually from one of two sources:
•drilling vertically into a coal seam (making use of pre-existing fracture patterns); or more likely
•directional drilling along a coal seam
In both cases the coals may be fractured to improve flow rates; the well is then pumped to remove water and lower the pressure within the seam to allow release of methane
How does coalbed methane affect the ability to extract the coal?

90.Extracting coalbed methane does not detrimentally affect the physical properties of coal, or prevent it from being worked at a later date.
What are the key factors to consider when considering coalbed methane exploration/production?

91.There are two main factors to consider:
•unlike underground coal mining, extraction of coalbed methane does not cause subsidence of the land surface;
•removing the water is commonly required to initiate gas production. Such de-watering can take an extended period of time.
Annex B: Outline of process for drilling an exploratory well

22
DECC
Issues a Petroleum and Exploratory Development Licence
Operator carries out Environmental Risk Assessment (for shale gas only)
Operator engages in pre-application discussion with local communities, mineral planning authorities and statutory consultees (Environment Agency, Natural England and English Heritage)
Minerals Planning Authority
Screens for Environmental Impact Assessment
Operator
submits Planning Application
Minerals Planning Authority validates, advertises and consults on application and any Environmental Statement
Operator undertakes Environmental Impact Assessment
Operator applies for environmental permits
Environment Agency
Issues environmental permits Operator abandons well
Site restoration and Post abandonment monitoring for defined period
Views of Statutory Consultees and local communities sought
Minerals Planning Authority decides case. Imposes planning conditions
British Geological Survey informed and Coal Authority consulted (if appropriate)
DECC
Well Consent Granted
Operator notifies Health and Safety Executive at least 21 days in advance of any activity
Operator may proceed and drill well
(subject to ongoing enforcement and monitoring)
Annex C: Establishing whether a proposed development requires an Environmental Impact Assessment
Is the development of a type described in Schedule 1 of the 2011 Regulations?
Is the development described in column 1 of Schedule 2 of the 2011 Regulations?
Is the development to be located within a sensitive area?
Does it meet any of the relevant thresholds and/or criteria in column 2 of Schedule 2?
Taking account of the selection criteria in Schedule 3, is the proposal likely to have significant effects on the environment?
Environmental Impact Assessment required (Secretary of State’s power to make directions)
Environmental effects are unlikely (‘Negative opinion’)
Environmental effects are likely
(‘Positiveopinion’)
No
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Environmental Impact Assessment is not required (Secretary of State’s power to make directions)

23

24
Annex D: Model planning conditions
Ground and Surface water
The boreholes must be constructed so as to prevent uncontrolled discharge of artesian groundwater to surface, and to prevent uncontrolled discharge of water or contamination into or between individual aquifers or different geological formations.
Any oils, fuels, lubricants or other liquid materials shall be located on an impervious base and/or within an impervious bunded area or purpose made self-bunding tanks so as to prevent any discharge or spillage into any watercourse, land or underground strata. Spill kits shall also be located in appropriate locations around the Site and utilised in the event of any accidental discharge/spillages.
No ground or surface water contaminated by oil, grease or other pollutants used on or in connection with the site operations shall be discharged into any ditch or watercourse.
Visual intrusion and landscaping
No development shall be commenced until a scheme providing full details of site landscaping works has been submitted to, and approved in writing, by the Local Planning Authority. Such a scheme shall include a planting plan and schedule of plants noting species, plant sizes and proposed numbers/densities. Thereafter the approved landscaping scheme shall be implemented in full.
Any trees or shrubs planted or retained in accordance with this condition which are removed, uprooted, destroyed, die or become severely damaged or diseased within 5 years of planting shall be replaced within the next planting season.
Noise control and monitoring
Prior to the commencement of the drilling operations hereby permitted, a detailed noise monitoring scheme shall be submitted to, and approved in writing by the Mineral Planning Authority. The scheme shall include the locations and times for noise monitoring to be carried out commencing from the start of drilling operations.
Noise monitoring shall thereafter be carried out in accordance with the approved Noise Monitoring scheme and the results of the each noise monitoring exercise shall be submitted to the Minerals Planning Authority within 7 days of the monitoring being carried out. Noise monitoring shall commence within 12 hours of drilling commencing.
In the event that noise monitoring indicates that noise levels have exceeded the maximum permitted noise level, drilling operations shall cease within [x] hours and until such time that further noise mitigation measures which shall be firstly approved in writing by the Minerals Planning Authority have been installed and employed within the site.
All plant and machinery shall be adequately maintained and silenced in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations at all times.

25
Dust and air quality
Prior to the commencement of the drilling operations hereby permitted, a detailed dust management plan shall be submitted to, and approved in writing by the Minerals Planning Authority.
No activity hereby permitted shall cause dust to be emitted so as to adversely affect adjacent residential properties and/ or other sensitive uses and/ or local environment. Should such an emission occur, the activity shall be suspended until a revised dust management plan is submitted and approved by the Minerals Planning Authority.
Lighting
Prior to the commencement of development, details of proposed lighting, including siting, height, design and position of floodlights, shall be submitted to and approved in writing to the Local Planning Authority. The lighting shall be implemented in accordance with these details and no other form of floodlighting shall be implemented on the application site without the prior written approval of the Local Planning Authority.
Soils
Prior to the construction of the drilling pad all available topsoil shall be stripped from the site and shall be stored in separate mounds within the site for use in the restoration of the site. The soils shall only be stripped when they are in a dry and friable condition.
All topsoil and subsoil mounds shall be graded and grass seeded within one month of the first planting season and thereafter retained in a grassed, weed free condition throughout the duration of the development pending their use in the restoration of the site.
Protected species and wildlife habitats
Prior to the commencement of development, a method statement for the protection of wildlife, flora and fauna during construction and during operation of the facility shall be submitted to and approved in writing by the Minerals Planning Authority.
No later than one year before the decommissioning of the site, an ecological survey shall take place to establish the presence, or otherwise, of any protected species on the site within the site boundary and immediately outside. The survey and measures for the protection of and minimisation of disturbance during the decommissioning phase shall be submitted to the Minerals Planning Authority for approval in writing. The development shall be implemented strictly in accordance with approved details of protection.
Restoration and after care
Within (time to be specified) months of the certification in writing by the Local Planning Authority of the completion of restoration, as defined in this permission, a scheme and programme for the aftercare of the site shall be submitted to the Local Planning Authority for approval in writing.

26
The scheme and programme shall contain details of the following:
a) Maintenance and management of the restored site to promote its agricultural use.
b) Weed control where necessary.
c) Measures to relieve compaction or improve drainage.
d) An annual inspection to be undertaken in conjunction with representatives of the Minerals Planning Authority to assess the aftercare works that are required in the following year.
or
Within 3 months of the date of this permission a detailed restoration and year aftercare scheme shall be submitted for the written approval of the Minerals Planning Authority. The scheme shall include details of the following:
a) treatment of the borehole;
b) soil remediation and reinstatement measures along with details of proposed grass seed mixes;
c) the removal of all building, plant, equipment, machinery, fencing, temporary surfacing materials from the Site and access track not required for the purpose of restoration and aftercare;
d) a 5 year aftercare programme.
The Site shall be restored in accordance with the approved restoration scheme and the Site thereafter managed in accordance with the approved 5 year aftercare programme. The aftercare period shall commence from the date that the Local Planning Authority confirms that the restoration works have been carried out and fully implemented in accordance with approved details.

27
Glossary
Aftercare - operations necessary to maintain restored land in a condition necessary for an agreed afteruse to continue.
Afteruse - the use that land, used for minerals working, is put to after restoration.
Conventional hydrocarbons are oil and gas where the reservoir is sandstone or limestone.
Directional drilling – non-vertical wells which begin with slanted but straight holes often used for mineral exploration and to avoid surface obstacles. Wells may also begin vertically but progressively build angle to intercept the hydrocarbon reservoir in a longer section than can be achieved by vertical drilling. Such non-vertical wells can be deployed radially from a single well pad.
Flow-testing – various tests to determine the hydrocarbon flow potential from the well, the reservoir characteristics and the nature of the hydrocarbons and other fluids present, often performed at different levels in a well.
Restoration - the return of land following mineral extraction to an acceptable condition, whether for resumption of the former land use or for a new use.
Sensitive Areas are Sites of Special Scientific Interest and European sites; National Parks, the Broads and Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty; and World Heritage Sites and scheduled monuments.
Unconventional hydrocarbons refers to oil and gas which comes from sources such as shale or coal seams which act as the reservoirs.
Well pad - A pad is a location for siting the wellheads for a number of horizontal or vertically drilled wells.

U.S. Energy Independence: A New American Narrative?

U.S. Energy Independence: A New American Narrative?



ライブ ストリーミング開始日: 2014/02/07
U.S. dependence on imported oil and gas has long been a source of controversy, as an economic, political and security issue. Yet now, with the widespread use of new technology allowing dramatic new sources of energy, things are changing. According to some experts, American energy independence is close, turning the tables on traditional suppliers. Is America about to free itself from dependence on foreign oil -- or are there hidden risks in this new wealth?

Growing U.S. Energy Self-sufficiency and the Global Consequences

Growing U.S. Energy Self-sufficiency and the Global Consequences



公開日: 2013/03/16

The United States is well on its way to becoming largely self-sufficient in oil and gas and could overtake Saudi Arabia as the world's biggest supplier of hydrocarbons by 2020. Even if U.S. energy independence is still some time away, this is nonetheless a stunning turnaround from decades of U.S. dependence on imported energy sources and all the attendant geopolitical concerns. The change has been driven in part by innovative methods of exploration and extraction of fossil fuels such as shale gas from hydraulic fracturing. In a development entirely unforeseen five years ago, this has caused natural gas supplies in the United States to soar and prices to drop. Europe, in contrast, must pay four to five times more for its natural gas and has become one of the biggest importers of U.S. coal, which is experiencing a sharp decline in its share of U.S. electricity generation as power is increasingly supplied by natural gas. This increasing availability of cheap electricity is helping to bring new vigor to the U.S. economy and there are signs of new manufacturing life in old industrial regions as energy-intensive industries like petrochemicals are finding the United States a more competitive place to do business.

Dr. Fatih Birol, Chief Economist, International Energy Agency
Mr. Iain Conn, Chief Executive Refining & Marketing, Group Managing Director, BP
The Hon. Christopher S. Murphy, Senator, United States
The Hon. Carlos Pascual, Special Envoy and Coordinator for International Energy Affairs, U.S. Department of State
Moderator: Ms. Sylke Tempel, Editor-in-Chief, Internationale Politik

Art Berman-Reflections on a Decade of Shale Gas

Art Berman-Reflections on a Decade of Shale Gas



公開日: 2013/10/04

Art Berman, Labyrinth Consulting Services, Houston, talks to HGS about his research into the economics of drilling and producing unconventional reservoirs in the United States. He discusses the Eagle Ford, Haynesville, Barnett and other shale gas plays. Berman presents graphs that show shale gas uneconomic to drill and produce at current gas prices. He says the public is mislead by energy company statements that gas reserves are large and that companies are making a profit from shale gas.
The Houston Geological Society is not responsible for content or conclusions presented in this talk.

Werner Zittel - Shale Gas: European Perspective

Werner Zittel - Shale Gas: European Perspective  



公開日: 2012/06/13

説明はありません。

Political Perspectives on the Energy Transition

Political Perspectives on the Energy Transition



公開日: 2012/06/18

Discussion: Political Perspectives on the Energy Transition
Yves Cochet, Theresia Vogel, Jeremy Leggett, James W. Buckee
Moderation: Paul Hohnen

US Shale Gas Revolution and its Implications (Panel B)

US Shale Gas Revolution and its Implications (Panel B)



公開日: 2013/02/18

The second panel discussion of the conference looked at 'US Shale Gas Revolution and its Implications'. The panel was moderated by Prof. Alan Riley (The City Law School), with speakers including Atle Rettedal (Statoil), Benjamín Palomo-Sanz (Repsol), Ford Nicholson (Kepis & Pobe), Michael O'Dwyer (Morgan Stanley), and Simon Whitehead (Hill+Knowlton Strategies)

A.T. Kearney Lecture on Resources - The Shale Gas Revolution

A.T. Kearney Lecture on Resources - The Shale Gas Revolution



公開日: 2013/06/14

Brian J.M. Ames, Business President, Olefins, Aromatics & Alternatives, The Dow Chemical Company
Marianne Kah, Chief Economist, ConocoPhillips
Andy Swaminathan, Senior Vice President, Portfolio Strategy, Constellation
Moderated by Vance Scott, Lead Partner, Energy and Process Industry Practices, Americas, and Board Director, A.T. Kearney

The shale gas revolution presents an historic opportunity for American competitiveness in the global economy. In addition to contributing to American energy security, the domestic oil and gas boom may provide an avenue for job creation beyond the energy sector as manufacturing companies "reshore" production facilities from abroad to take advantage of cheap sources of domestic energy. Consumers may also benefit from lower utility bills caused by an abundance of affordable energy. However, the outcome of the shale gas revolution is far from certain. Environmental concerns, alternative energy sources, the health of the global economy, and a heated debate about the export of American natural gas abroad may all influence the outcome. Join The Chicago Council for an expert panel discussion on the shale gas revolution and the implications for American competitiveness.

Timothy J. Considine at Saturday U-The Shale Revolution: Benefit or Curse?

Timothy J. Considine at Saturday U-The Shale Revolution: Benefit or Curse?



公開日: 2013/01/31

Timothy J. Considine, Professor of Economics & Finance. Director, Center for Energy Economics and Public Policy, School of Energy Resources, University of Wyoming
Dr. Considine shares insights from his research into the fracking of the Marcellus Shale gas deposits in Pennsylvania and what it reveals about the costs, concerns, and benefits of fracking, whether in Pennsylvania, Wyoming or elsewhere.

Considine spent the last four years studying the drilling of Pennsylvania's Marcellus Shale formation, weighing the costs of production against the price of gas, the impacts on the people, forests, water and air above the formation against steps taken to mitigate such impacts. What does this new data and analysis reveal for future projects?
Hydraulic fracturing and other production technologies have unlocked large reserves of oil and natural gas once considered too costly to produce. These new reserves could supply U.S. natural gas consumption for decades. But how to do this safely and profitably?

Professor Tim Considine earned his PhD in in Natural Resource Economics from Cornell University in 1981, and went to work for the Congressional Budget Office and later the Bank of America as a environmental resources analyst. In 1986, he joined the Department of Energy, Environmental and Mineral Economics at Pennsylvania State University. In 2008, the University of Wyoming hired him away for its new School of Energy Research, where he now serves as the professor of Energy Economics and directs the Center for Energy Economics and Public Policy.

Energy production and distribution is a complicated business, requiring a great deal of up-front investment before energy or profits are produced. Dr. Considine has focused his research on understanding the elements and dynamics of that relationship as well as the implications for public policy. His writings range from "The Value of Powder River Basin Coal to the U.S. Economy," for the Wyoming Mining Association to analyses of Carbon Permit Markets for the World Bank. Along the way he has worked on "The value of hurricane forecast information to energy producers in the Gulf of Mexico," tried his hand at forecasting California's energy development, investigated such topics as the economics of the American Steel industry, climate change impacts on energy consumption, and the benefits of America's strategic petroleum reserve.

Saturday U, Summer Winter Session 2013 was held January 25, 2013 at Gillette College. Saturday U is a collaborative program that connects popular UW professors with lifelong learners in Jackson, Gillette, and Sheridan. Offered twice a year in each community, Saturday U is sponsored by the university, the UW Foundation and Wyoming Humanities Council.
Video by UW Television, Outreach Technology Services
Camera/Editor: Ali Grossman apg@uwyo.edu
Copyright 2013 UW Television

武田邦彦教授ブログ【この先エネルギーがなくなることはない：石

武田邦彦教授ブログ【この先エネルギーがなくなることはない：石



公開日: 2013/10/04

消費税を上げるのが決まって、なんとなく出鼻をくじかれた感じですが、元気で行きたい­と思います。

石炭は200年前から、石油は100年前から、いまでいう森林などの「再生可能エネル­ギー」ではまかないきれなくなったので地下資源を使い始めたことに端を発しています。

人類が石油、石炭、天然ガスなどの大昔の生物の死骸を使い始めてからまだ100年から­200年です。

これらの化石燃料には2種類あり、一つが数億年前に土の中に埋もれたもので、かなり古­いので地下3000メートルから7000メートル程度にあります。

もう一つが、そこから漏れてきたもので、今、私たちが使っているものです。つまり、私­たちが使っているものは「本体」ではなく「漏れたもの」です。

漏れたもの（今の石油など）は500年ぐらいの寿命、地下深いところにある本体は1万­年ぐらいです。そして、エネルギーの研究はまだそれほど長い歴史はありませんから、こ­れからジックリと研究開発しても充分に間に合います。

「エネルギー資源が無くなる」と心配したり、煽ったりするのを止めましょう。世界各国­でも「エネルギーの節約」などをしている国はありません。

また政府はすぐエネルギーというと「補助金＝税金」を出すのですが、エネルギーの研究­はまだ500年の余裕があるので、企業が有望と思えば自分のリスクでやった方が意味の­あるエネルギーが選択されます。特許権は世界的にも20年ぐらいしか有効ではないので­、もし日本で有望な技術ができても、それが使われるまで特許権はきれてしまいます。そ­して、税金をもらってやる研究は成功しません。

また、個人の思想は自由ですが、エネルギーを節約しなければならない科学的な根拠はな­いので、特に若い人に未来を暗く言うのはあまり感心しません。人生の大半を終わった人­と、これからの人では未来の感じが全く違うことも年配者は考慮してあげなければならな­いと思います。

少し乱暴に言えば、「ジャンジャン使ってもなくならないので、お金に心配がなければジ­ャンジャン使って明るい生活」と言うことになります。消費税を上げてムダな原発や代換­えエネルギーに税金を投入するのではなく、国民の方にお金があって、明るい生活をする­方が企業も収益があがり、新しいエネルギー研究にも手が回るようになります。

武田邦彦教授 ブログ】広島長崎原爆と福島原発の比較：福島＞

武田邦彦教授 ブログ】広島長崎原爆と福島原発の比較：福島＞



公開日: 2013/11/16

2011年に福島原発事故が起こった直後、「広島・長崎でもたいした事は無かったのだ­から、原発が爆発しても驚くことはない」という話しが専門家でも言う人がいたので、急­いで否定しておいたが、それからかなり時間がたっても、まだ、そのようなことを言う専­門家がいる。

１） 原発はウランの量が膨大
広島の原爆に使われたウランは約60キログラム、それに対して福島原発のような100­万キロ級の原発一基あたりのウランの量は約100トン（100000キログラム）。量­から言えば約1700倍。
原発はウラン235が3％ぐらいで、原爆は90％だから、ウラン235だけが核分裂し­て放射性物質を出すとして（厳密に言うとウラン238も反応するが）、約60倍。

２） 放射性物質量は200倍
このように原爆は「小さくて爆発力が大きい」もので、原発は「大きくて放射線量は大き­い」という特徴があり、2011年当時、私が急いで計算したときには広島原爆に比べて­福島原発事故では200倍ぐらいだった。

３） 瞬間的と長期的の差
原爆は瞬間的に少ない放射性物質がでるので、強く被曝した人は熱線で死んでしまうので­、「熱線や爆風で無くならなかった人で、被曝した人が原爆症になる」ということ。それ­に比べて福島のような場合は、健康被害は被曝に限定される。
（注）チェルノブイリの死者は、事故処理のために死刑囚を使って事故が起こった原子炉­に突撃させ、約半分が死んだが、日本ではそれほど荒っぽいことはしていない。

４） 広島・長崎での被曝者数と原爆症認定患者数
広島・長崎の被爆者手帳を持っている人は25万人。原爆症認定患者数は最近に認定され­た人を合わせて1万人弱で、認定には不満が多い。政治的なことを別にすると、広島・長­崎の被曝による健康被害は最低でも1万人はいると考えられる。
別の論文では原爆による間接的な影響も含めてガン患者は11万人との報告もある。

従って、「広島・長崎で被曝してもたいした事はなかったから、福島でも大したことはな­い」というのは、第一に福島の方が放射線量が50倍から200倍程度大きいこと、第二­に広島・長崎でも1万人から10万人程度の被害を出しているという現実から見ると、あ­まりにも事実を無視した話しだ。

それより、私は長い学問的検討を経て、「日本人を被曝から守るには、1年1ミリシーベ­ルト以内」と決めた法令を守るというのが、緊急時にあらゆる検討に先立って、日本人が­被曝した人に対して認めなければならないことと思う。

（平成25年8月15日）

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【保存版】 原発の安全 / 武田 邦彦

【保存版】 原発の安全 / 武田 邦彦



公開日: 2013/12/30

中部大学教授・武田邦彦さんのブログ音声をご紹介します
( ご本人のご厚意により、引用が認められています )
　
武田邦彦さんのサイト [ http://takedanet.com ]
　
・ 【原発の安全】０１・・・日本での誕生
2013/08/23 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/08/post_a65... ]
　
・ 【原発の安全】０２・・・誕生の時の科学者の動き
2013/08/26 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/08/post_0c3... ]
　
・ 【原発の安全】０３・・・原発建設時代の自信家たち
2013/09/02 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/09/post_1a8... ]
　
・ 【原発の安全】０４・・・安全研究は進まなかった
2013/09/10 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/09/post_b7c... ]
　
・ 【原発の安全】０５・・・原発の安全性議論はじまる
2013/09/24 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/09/post_870... ]
　
・ 【原発の安全】０６・・・安全研究の中止
2013/09/27 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/09/post_573... ]
　
・ 【原発の安全】０７・・・左右から叩きつぶされた安全
2013/09/29 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/09/post_a6b... ]
　
【 お知らせ 】 現在、YouTubeチャンネルを Channel ☆ K [ http://www.youtube.com/ChannelK2013 ] に移転中です。しばらくは両方のチャンネルで動画をアップしますので、両方のチャンネ­ル登録を、よろしくお願いします。これか­らも武田さんのブログ音声、そして現場での­映像撮影に努めます。 [ 2013年06月11日 / 清瀬 航輝 ]

【保存版】 武田邦彦さんが「幸福」について解説 / 武田 邦彦

【保存版】 武田邦彦さんが「幸福」について解説 / 武田 邦彦




  公開日: 2013/12/30

中部大学教授・武田邦彦さんのブログ音声をご紹介します
( ご本人のご厚意により、引用が認められています )
　
武田邦彦さんのサイト [ http://takedanet.com ]
　
● 幸福
　
・ 幸福　その一
2013/08/18 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/08/post_e56... ]
　
・ 幸福　その二
2013/08/20 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/08/post_601... ]
　
・ 幸福　その三
2013/08/22 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/08/post_b8a... ]
　
・ 幸福　その四
2013/08/25 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/08/post_70f... ]
　
・ 幸福　その五
2013/08/27 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/08/post_df5... ]
　
・ 幸福　その六
2013/09/01 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/09/post_146... ]
　
・ 幸福　その七
2013/09/05 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/09/post_bf9... ]
　
・ 【幸福】　その八
2013/09/10 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/09/post_59c... ]
　
・ 【幸福】　その九　不幸になりたがる人たち
2013/09/14 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/09/post_1ea... ]
　
・ 【幸福】その十　デディケーション
2013/09/15 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/09/post_83b... ]
　
・ 【幸福】　その十一　雨宿り
2013/09/16 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/09/post_1a8... ]
　
・ 【幸福】　その十二　　たぬきそば
2013/09/17 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/09/post_a97... ]
　
・ 【幸福】　その十三　　ああ、気がねない自由が・・・
2013/09/18 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/09/post_579... ]
　
● 「幸福」について
　
・ 今の自分から見て「少しでも得」は「幸福」なのか？
2013/12/07 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/12/post_619... ]
　
・ 幸福シリーズ・善意は人を苦しめる（１）　ガソリンは若者を幸福にする
2013/12/10 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/12/post_41e... ]
　
・ 幸福シリーズ２　幸福になる三つの杖　第三回
2013/12/13 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/12/post_680... ]
　
・ 幸福シリーズ（３）・「もったいない」は日本語？　おせち料理は未来に夢を与えてくれるのに
2013/12/16 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/12/post_532... ]
　
【 お知らせ 】 現在、YouTubeチャンネルを Channel ☆ K [ http://www.youtube.com/ChannelK2013 ] に移転中です。しばらくは両方のチャンネルで動画をアップしますので、両方のチャンネ­ル登録を、よろしくお願いします。これか­らも武田さんのブログ音声、そして現場での­映像撮影に努めます。 [ 2013年06月11日 / 清瀬 航輝 ]

【保存版】 被曝と健康 / 武田 邦彦

【保存版】 被曝と健康 / 武田 邦彦



公開日: 2013/12/29

中部大学教授・武田邦彦さんのブログ音声をご紹介します
( ご本人のご厚意により、引用が認められています )
　
武田邦彦さんのサイト [ http://takedanet.com ]
　
・ 被曝と健康、医療をもう一度、考える　１．その基本
2013/10/01 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/10/post_c26... ]
　
・ 被曝と健康、医療をもう一度、考える　　２．規制値の決定方法
2013/10/02 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/10/post_e35... ]
　
・ 被曝と健康、医療をもう一度、考える　３．具体的な規制値
2013/10/03 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/10/post_add... ]
　
・ 被曝と健康、医療をもう一度、考える　４．　現実の状態と倫理的問題
2013/10/04 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/10/post_302... ]
　
・ 被曝と健康、医療をもう一度、考える　５．事故時に許される被曝限度
2013/10/05 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/10/post_40c... ]
　
・ 被曝と健康、医療をもう一度、考える　６．　事故時の集団での被曝とその影響
2013/10/06 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/10/post_45e... ]
　
・ 被曝と健康、医療をもう一度、考える　７．専門家の倫理と医師の資格
2013/10/07 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/10/post_522... ]
　
・ 被曝と健康、医療をもう一度、考える　８．　福島事故で学ぶこと
2013/10/09 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/10/post_59a... ]
　
・ 被曝と健康９　（一般編－１）外部被曝
2013/10/11 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/10/post_c54... ]
　
・ 被曝と健康１０　（一般編－２）異論・反論の整理
2013/10/14 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/10/post_4ec... ]
　
・ 被曝と健康１１　（一般編－３）　中村尚司先生の心境・・・「ウソ」としないと失礼になる
2013/10/14 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/10/post_4f9... ]
　
・ 被曝と健康１２　（一般編－４）中村先生の心境２・・・350人の犠牲は仕方が無い
2013/10/16 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/10/350_1885... ]
　
・ 被曝と健康１３　（一般編－５）藤井がんセンター部長の論理
2013/10/18 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/10/post_9cc... ]
　
・ 被曝と健康１４　（見解書－５）　自然放射線は「安全」か？
2013/10/20 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/10/post_777... ]
　
・ 被曝と健康１５　（見解書－６）　東葛６市の見解書の総括
2013/10/24 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/10/post_6bb... ]
　
・ 被曝と健康１６（臨時）　１年１ミリは「法令」か？－１
2013/10/31 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/11/post_a27... ]
　
・ 被曝と健康１７（臨時）　１年１ミリは「法令」か？－２
2013/10/03 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/11/post_962... ]
　
【 お知らせ 】 現在、YouTubeチャンネルを Channel ☆ K [ http://www.youtube.com/ChannelK2013 ] に移転中です。しばらくは両方のチャンネルで動画をアップしますので、両方のチャンネ­ル登録を、よろしくお願いします。これか­らも武田さんのブログ音声、そして現場での­映像撮影に努めます。 [ 2013年06月11日 / 清瀬 航輝 ]

 

【重要】 民意に反する安倍政権は、もうやめて下さい / 武田邦彦

【重要】 民意に反する安倍政権は、もうやめて下さい / 武田邦彦  



公開日: 2013/11/21

中部大学教授・武田邦彦さんのブログ音声をご紹介します
( ご本人のご厚意により、引用が認められています )

武田邦彦さんのサイト [ http://takedanet.com ]

・ 秘密保護法と衆議院の解散
2013/11/22 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/11/post_5e7... ]

安倍政権ができたときには期待したものだ。それは「民主党の政策が悪かった」というの­ではなく、「民主党がサギをしたから」という理由だった。民主主義の根幹は「代議士は­国民の代わりをする」ということで、「代理で議論する」はずの人が、選挙で選ばれたと­きと正反対の政策を進めたのだから嫌になるのは当然で、まだ民主党という政党がいるこ­と自体が不思議と言える。

だから、景気回復以外は安倍政権にあまり具体的な期待を持っていたわけではない。安倍­政権が成立してから株価だけが上がっていったのはそれを意味している。

ところが、その後、理由不明なことが続いている。増税の実施時期を引き延ばすと思って­いたのに決定した（国民が政府に1000兆円貸しているのに、国民の借金と言って増税­した）、日銀とタイアップして賃金を上げるのかと思ったら電気代や公共料金が上がるこ­とになった、多くの人の心配に回答も出さずに原発再開や他国への原発販売を進めている­。

いずれも国民の期待とは大きくかけ離れ、むしろ正反対を向いている。消費税の増税では­新聞、テレビは「軽減税率を適応する」という財務省との約束を信じて、反対をしなかっ­たが、秘密保護法になるとさすがに反対をしている。

普通の人が民主党政権がなくなりほっとしていたのに、１）増税、２）公共料金の値上げ­、３）原発再開、そして４）秘密保護法、だからイヤになるのは当然だ。そういえば、安­倍、麻生、福田と続いた自民党末期政権に国民が嫌気をさした、そのままになっている。

ところで、その自民党が「秘密保護法」を成立させようとしているし、公明、維新、みん­なの党も賛成に回った。だから、普通に考えると、代議士が賛成するということは、日本­人の多くが「秘密を保護しなければならない」という考えなのだろう。政治は「政府が決­めるもの」ではなく、「国民の意思を政府が代弁するもの」だからである。

しかし、わたしは原発再開と同じく、国民のおおくが反対していると認識しているし、第­一、なぜ、何を秘密を保護しなければならないのか、まして特別な法律を作らなければな­らないのか、さっぱり理解できないし、説明も受けていない。テレビや新聞は時々、報道­しているけれど、「なぜ、必要か」、「だれが必要と言っているのか」など本質的なこと­をほとんど報道していない。

戦後、「国家秘密」で問題になったのは、沖縄返還の密約の暴露などがすぐ思い出すもの­だが、秘密保護法がなくても政府は十分に事実を隠していたし、隠された事実を暴いた新­聞記者の方の関係者が有罪になったりして、むしろ秘密は日本的に「法律もなく保護され­てきた」と言える。

だから、今度の秘密保護法の目的が「これまで秘密を保護する法律がなかったので、なん­でもかんでも秘密にしていたので、これからは秘密にすべきことを決めてもっと開放的に­したい」というのならわかる。

たとえば日本の偵察衛星が撮影した福島原発事故のようすは未だに公開されていない。国­会の答弁では「秘密が保全されているから」という。でも最高裁判決では民主主義で「何­を秘密かを決めるのは国民だ」ということになっている。

今回の秘密保護法は民主党政権時代に仙石氏が中心となって「秘密主義」でことが進んで­きた。「国民はバカだから教えない」というのも民主主義の原理原則に反している。まず­は説明をして国民の賛成を得て、ことを進めるという代議士を選出しなければならない。

安倍政権は「民意を代表しない代議士で国会が構成されている」という判断をして、国会­を解散をするべきだ。

平成25年11月22日 / 武田 邦彦

「石油輸入で赤字」と嘘をつく安倍首相 / 武田 邦彦

「石油輸入で赤字」と嘘をつく安倍首相 / 武田 邦彦



公開日: 2013/12/21

中部大学教授・武田邦彦さんのブログ音声をご紹介します
( ご本人のご厚意により、引用が認められています )
　
武田邦彦さんのサイト [ http://takedanet.com ]
　
・ なぜ、経済学はダメなのか？
2013/12/22 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2013/12/post_71d... ]
　
（以下転載）
　
　今の日本経済のことで先日、ある高名な経済学の人に質問したら、実に的確に、かつ高度­なご回答を得た。資料も教えてもらい、私としてもずいぶん、勉強になった。でも、今日­もずいぶん、「経済学」というのが違う意味や内容で使われている。
　
　たとえば、安倍首相が「原子力を止めて火力発電用に石油を買ったので４兆円の貿易赤字­になる」と発言していた。私がその人に「４兆円で石油を買ったといっても、石油を海に­捨てたわけでもなく、４兆円の価値のあるものが日本にあるのだから、「赤字」というの­も変ですね」というと、「安倍さんは間違っているのです」とお答えになり、さらに隣に­いる人が「官僚は間違っているのをわかって、安倍さんに言わせているんだ」という。
　
　つまり経済学的に誤っていることが私程度の人間がすぐにわかるようなことでも、「自分­に都合が良ければ国民をだます」というのを首相もするような社会なのだ。でもこのよう­なウソは「空気」となりＮＨＫが報道し、定着していく。それを覆すのは容易ではない。­この手のものに私の領域では、「森林がＣＯ２を吸収する」とか、「地球が温暖化してい­る」というのがあり、なかなか否定するのすらむつかしい。
　
　最近のＡクラスのウソは「国民一人当たり８００万円の借金。子孫にツケを回すな」とい­うＮＨＫの報道だが、「貯金」を「借金」と言い換えるのだから相当なウソだ。
　
　その人からいただいた経済の雑誌に、「経済学はとても役に立つものだ。（中略）でもそ­れが役に立たないのは経済を知らない人が多いから」とあったが、それもあるかも知れな­いが、これだけ経済学を知っている人がウソをつくと、少し経済学をかじったぐらいでは­すぐ疑問を生じてしまう。
　
　「原発を止めても日本の電気は大丈夫か？」という問題に、すでに３年近く「原油を輸入­すると日本経済に打撃になる」という話が残っていることが、原発問題の解決を遅らせて­いる。その原因は「ウソを言う官僚、専門家と、それに乗る首相」というかなり奥深い問­題があるからだ。
　
　ＣＯ２で地球が危機的な温暖化に陥ることはないと思うが、もし仮にＣＯ２を削減するべ­きだとしても、アメリカは電気を作るのに一人当たり日本の約２倍のＣＯ２を出している­。「なぜ、アメリカ人がＣＯ２を２倍出しているのに、日本人はＣＯ２を出さないように­するために火力発電所を作ってはいけないのか？」と聞くと、質問した人が良く分かって­いると思うと、露骨なウソをつけないから「日本人はアメリカ人の召使いだから」という­意味の答えが返ってくる。
　
　時々、日本人には誠意も知性もなくなってしまったのか！と哀しくなることすらある。で­も、私たちがしっかりしないと、私たちの子供は悲惨な生活をするようになるだろう。
　
平成25年12月21日 / 武田 邦彦
　
（以上転載）
　
【 お知らせ 】 現在、YouTubeチャンネルを Channel ☆ K [ http://www.youtube.com/ChannelK2013 ] に移転中です。しばらくは両方のチャンネルで動画をアップしますので、両方のチャンネ­ル登録を、よろしくお願いします。これか­らも武田さんのブログ音声、そして現場での­映像撮影に努めます。 [ 2013年06月11日 / 清瀬 航輝 ]

【1167】 ニュース短信 : 反社会団体の関西電力 / 武田 邦彦

【1167】 ニュース短信 : 反社会団体の関西電力 / 武田 邦彦

菅官房長官の知能レベルは中学生並みか / 武田 邦彦

菅官房長官の知能レベルは中学生並みか / 武田 邦彦



公開日: 2014/01/17

中部大学教授・武田邦彦さんのブログ音声をご紹介します
( ご本人のご厚意により、引用が認められています )
　
武田邦彦さんのサイト [ http://takedanet.com ]
　
・ 東京と原発　（東京の人が日本人になるかの踏絵）
2014/01/16 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2014/01/post_689... ]
　
（以下転載）
　
　細川元首相が東京都知事に立候補し、それを小泉元首相が応援するということで話題にな­っています。立候補する目的は「脱原発」です。
　
　これについて「東京都と原発は関係ない」という話がコメンテーターや都民からでていま­すが、人間は自分の身になるとわからないものなのだなとテレビを見ながらつくづく思い­ました。まるで全体を見ることができず駄々をこねている中学生のような感じがしました­が、これでは原発問題は解決しないと思い、筆を執りました。
　
　なぜ福島に原発があったかというと、東京の人が「原発の電気は欲しいけれど、危険だか­ら近くは嫌だ」というので、所得の低い地方に作ることになったことに端を発しています­。
　
　もし、東京の人が誠実で「自分たちの電気は自分たちで。特に原発が危険ならなおさら他­人に押し付けずに自分たちの近くに作る」という態度をとったら、福島の人は被災しなか­ったでしょう。
　
　また、「原発は安全だ」と言った人も東京在住、御用学者の東大も、誤報を続けたＮＨＫ­も、そして「健康に影響はない」と違法な発言を繰り返した官房長官も東京の人です。つ­まり福島原発事故は東京の人の自作自演なのですから、「今後、自分たちはどうするのか­？　誠実な人生を送るのか？」という問いに真正面から答えなければならず、それが今回の都­知事選だからです。
　
　恥ずかしいことにアメリカもフランスも電力消費地の近くに原発があり、だからこそ安全­対策もしっかりしているのですが、現在の東京の人のように「自分だけ得をして危険は他­人に。良いとこ取りで、あとは権力と御用学者とＮＨＫで誤魔化す」ということをしてい­たら、日本人とは言えないと私は思います。
　
平成26年1月16日 / 武田 邦彦
　
（以上転載）
　
【 お知らせ 】 現在、YouTubeチャンネルを Channel ☆ K [ http://www.youtube.com/ChannelK2013 ] に移転中です。しばらくは両方のチャンネルで動画をアップしますので、両方のチャンネ­ル登録を、よろしくお願いします。 [ 2013年06月11日 / 清瀬 航輝 ]

[ 東京都知事選挙 , 東京都知事選 , 都知事選挙 , 都知事選 , 細川 護熙 , 細川護熙 , 細川 , 小泉 純一郎 , 小泉純一郎 , 小泉 , 田母神 俊雄 , 田母神俊雄 , 田母神 , 舛添 要一 , 舛添要一 , 舛添 , 宇都宮 健児 , 宇都宮健児 , ドクター 中松 , ドクター中松 , 石原 慎太郎 , 石原慎太郎 , 安倍 晋三 , 安倍晋三 , 安倍 , 自民党 , 民主党 , 日弁連 , 勝手連 , 東京 , 東京都 , 都民 , 東京都民 , 選挙 , 自衛隊 , 脱原発 , 原発 , 原子力 , 武田 邦彦 , 武田邦彦 , 中部大学 , ホンマでっか!?TV ]

武田邦彦教授「バッシング？全然平気です

STAP細胞 小保方論文は何が問題？ 武田邦彦が騒動を斬る!! 1/2



公開日: 2014/03/13

ゴゴスマ～GOGO!Smile!～ 2014.03.13

STAP細胞 小保方論文は何が問題？ 武田邦彦が騒動を斬る!! 2/2  




武田邦彦教授「バッシング？全然平気です（笑）」　独壇場に司会

公開日: 2013/03/29

『「正しい」とは何か？　武田教授の眠れない講義』を発売した武田邦彦教授が登場。武田教授は低線量被曝問題、­地球温暖化など幅広いジャンルで議論、時には世間の常識にも真っ向からぶつかるスタイ­ルが人気だ。同著では原発からタバコ、男女関係の諸問題について自らの考えを語る。日­本では絶対的なものと考えられがちな「正しさ（＝正義）」は、利害関係の数だけ存在す­るという。そして、作られた「正しさ」が信じ込まれて「空気」となってしまう危うさを­指摘する。
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小保方問題、私の見解 / 武田 邦彦



公開日: 2014/03/17

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2014/03/17 の記事 [ http://takedanet.com/2014/03/post_ae8... ]
　
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Chernobyl disaster incident PART1~ PART 8

Chernobyl disaster incident PART 1



アップロード日: 2008/03/02
Chernobyl incident with a Garrysmod twist


Chernobyl disaster incident PART 2

http://youtu.be/zByDY-nPNJc
リクエストによる埋め込み無効



Chernobyl disaster incident PART 3




Chernobyl disaster incident PART 4




Chernobyl disaster incident PART 5




Chernobyl disaster incident PART 6




Chernobyl disaster incident PART 7




Chernobyl disaster incident PART 8

The Chernobyl Disaster: 25 Years Ago

The Chernobyl Disaster: 25 Years Ago

Mar 23, 2011 

http://www.theatlantic.com/infocus/2011/03/the-chernobyl-disaster-25-years-ago/100033/

The 25th anniversary of the Chernobyl nuclear disaster is next month. On April 26, 1986, a series of explosions destroyed Chernobyl's reactor No. 4 station and several hundred staff and firefighters tackled a blaze that burned for 10 days and sent a plume of radiation around the world in the worst-ever civil nuclear disaster. More than 50 reactor and emergency workers were killed at the time. Assessing the larger impact on human health remains a difficult task, with estimates of related deaths from cancer ranging from 4,000 to over 200,000. The government of Ukraine indicated early this year that it will lift restrictions on tourism around the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, formally opening the scene to visitors. It's expected, meanwhile, that a 20,000-ton steel case called the New Safe Confinement (NSC), designed as a permanent containment structure for the whole plant, will be completed in 2013. [39 photos]

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A military helicopter sprays a decontaminating substance over the region surrounding the Chernobyl nuclear power station a few days after its No. 4 reactor's blast, the worst nuclear accident of the 20th century. (STF/AFP/Getty Images)

2
An aerial view of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, the site of the world's worst nuclear accident, is shown in this May 1986 photo made a few days after the April 26 explosion in Chernobyl, Ukraine. In front of the chimney is the destroyed 4th reactor. Behind the chimney and very close to the 4th reactor is the 3rd reactor which was stopped on Dec. 6, 2000. (AP Photo) #

3
Repairs are carried out on the Chernobyl nuclear plant in Ukraine on October 1st, 1986, following a major explosion in April 1986 which, according to official statistics, affected 3,235,984 Ukrainians and sent radioactive clouds all over Europe. (ZUFAROV/AFP/Getty Images) #

4
Part of the collapsed roof at the Chernobyl nuclear plant, damaged in a fire, is pictured in this photo taken, Friday, Oct. 13, 1991 in Chernobyl, Ukraine during a media tour of the facility. (AP Photo/Efrm Lucasky) #

5
Lt. Colonel Leonid Telyatnikov, Head of the Pripyat Fire Brigade which fought the Chernobyl blaze, points at a photograph of the power station's damaged fourth reactor following the April 26, 1986 nuclear accident. The reactor has since been entombed in concrete. Telyatnikov, 36, was hospitalized for two months with acute radiation sickness and was twice decorated for bravery. (Reuters) #

6
Repairs are carried out on the Chernobyl nuclear plant in Russia on August 5th, 1986. (ZUFAROV/AFP/Getty Images) #

7
A Kurchatov Nuclear Institute worker walks in the light streaming into the cement-entombed room of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant's exploded reactor on Friday, Sept. 15, 1989, three years after the nuclear disaster. (AP Photo/Mikhail Metzel) #

8
A worker at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant checks the radiation level in the engine room of the first and second power units in this June 5, 1986 photo. (Reuters) #

9
A graveyard for vehicles highly contaminated by radiation, near the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, seen on Nov. 10, 2000. Some 1,350 Soviet military helicopters, buses, bulldozers, tankers, transporters, fire engines and ambulances were used while fighting against the April 26, 1986 nuclear accident at Chernobyl. All were irradiated during the clean-up operation. (AP Photo/Efrem Lukatsky) #

10
A Kurchatov Nuclear Institute worker stands in the operators room of block number four Chernobyl's nuclear power plant inside the sarcophagus on Friday, Sept. 15, 1989, three years after the nuclear disaster. (AP Photo/Mikhail Metzel) #

11
A nurse at a children's health clinic in Warsaw administers an iodine solution to a three-year-old girl held in her mother's arms in Poland, May 1986. Protective measures were taken for possible radiation poisoning from the Soviet nuclear accident in Chernobyl. (AP Photo/Czarek Sokolowski) #

12
Trucks filled with concrete wait for unloading at the construction site of the concrete sarcophagus at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant's fourth reactor in this October 1986 file photo. (Reuters) #

13
Ukrainian Academy of Sciences member Vyacheslav Konovalov holds a preserved mutated colt in Zhytomyr, Ukraine, on Monday, March 11, 1996. Konovalov had been studying biological mutations appearing after Chernobyl nuclear plant explosion. The colt was dubbed "Gorbachev colt" after Konovalov brought a lifesize photo of it to the Supreme Soviet in 1988 to show the Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev what Chernobyl was doing the country's wildlife. (AP Photo/Efrem Lukatsky) #

14
A statue of Vladimir Lenin stands in the middle of a small park in the port of Chernobyl near the frozen river of Pripyat on January 29, 2006 in Chernobyl, Ukraine. The Chernobyl Port was abandoned soon after the 1986 Catastrophe. (Daniel Berehulak/Getty Images) #

15
A general view of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, April 26, 2006. (Reuters/Mykola Lazarenko)#

16
A monitor screen of the first power block's control assembly of Chernobyl nuclear power plant displays the unloading of the last atomic fuel from the reactor on November 30th, 2006. (SERGEI SUPINSKY/AFP/Getty Images) #

17
A raven stretches its wings as it sits on a post inside the 30 km (18 miles) exclusion zone around the Chernobyl nuclear reactor near the village of Babchin, Belarus on December 23, 2009. The sign reads: "Radiation hazard". (Reuters/Vasily Fedosenko) #

18
Ukrainian school children try on gauze masks as part of a safety drill in a school in Rudniya, just outside the Chernobyl contamination zone, Monday, April 3, 2006. (AP Photo/Oded Balilty) #

19
A view of the Chernobyl nuclear power station is seen from Ukraine's ghost town of Pripyat, April 13, 2006. (Reuters/Gleb Garanich) #

20
A Ferris Wheel is seen in the ghost town of Pripyat, which was evacuated after a nuclear disaster in Chernobyl, April 13, 2006. (Reuters/Gleb Garanich) #

21
Baby cradles are seen in a hospital in the abandoned town of Pripyat, inside the exclusion zone around the closed Chernobyl nuclear power plant Sunday, April 2, 2006. Pripyat, a town of 47,000-people near Chernobyl nuclear power plant, was completely evacuated within days after the accident. (AP Photo/Oded Balilty) #

22
General view of Ukraine's ghost town of Pripyat, April 13, 2006. (Reuters/Gleb Garanich) #

23
A guide holds a Geiger counter showing radiation levels 37 times higher than normal as a woman takes a picture in front of the sarcophagus of the destroyed fourth block of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant on September 16, 2010. Thousands of people each year visit the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, where the world's worst nuclear disaster took place in April 1986, and the 30-km zone around it that remains uninhabited. (GENYA SAVILOV/AFP/Getty Images) #

24
Nastasya Vasilyeva, 67, cries at her home in the devastated village Rudnya in an isolated zone some 45km (28 miles) from Ukraine's Chernobyl nuclear power plant, Monday, April 3, 2006. Dozens of villages in the contaminated zone stand empty, their residents having been evacuated following the world's worst nuclear disaster. However, despite radiation warnings many residents have returned to their homes, saying they had difficulties starting their lives anew in other parts of the country. (AP Photo/Sergey Ponomarev) #

25
A Ukrainian man with a dog walks in a street in the ghost town of Chernobyl, April 13, 2006. (Reuters/Gleb Garanich) #

26
An abandoned house seen in the deserted village Redkovka, some 35 km (22 miles) from Ukraine's Chernobyl nuclear power plant, Thursday, March 30, 2006. (AP Photo/Sergey Ponomarev) #

27
A wolf stands in a field inside the exclusion zone around the Chernobyl nuclear reactor near the village of Babchin, Belarus on February 1, 2008. Wildlife in the exclusion zone has been teeming despite radiation, since people left the area around Chernobyl after the 1986 nuclear disaster, keepers of the ecological reserve said. (Reuters/Vasily Fedosenko) #

28
A man lights a candle at the Chernobyl victims' monument in Slavutich, some 50 kilometers (30 miles) away from the accident's site, and where many of the power station's personnel used to live, during a memorial ceremony on the night of April 25-26, 2009. (SERGEI SUPINSKY/AFP/Getty Images) #

29
Pictures of workers who worked at Ukraine's Chernobyl nuclear power plant immediately after the explosion in 1986 are exhibited in the Chernobyl museum in Kiev April 18, 2006. (Reuters/Gleb Garanich) #

30
A close view of reactor number 4 of Chernobyl nuclear power plant in this May 10, 2007 picture, with the Chernobyl Monument, left, erected in 2006. (AP Photo/ Efrem Lukatsky) #

31
In April of 1996, a worker operates a drilling machine as he makes tests under the sarcophagus, built over the Chernobyl nuclear power plant's fourth reactor which exploded on April 26, 1986 (Reuters) #

32
In this Nov. 10, 2000 photo, the control room with its damaged machinery, is seen inside reactor No. 4 in the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. Geiger counters registered about 80,000 microroentgens an hour, 16,000 times the safe limit. (AP Photo/Efrem Lukatsky, file) #

33
An employee of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant walks in the control room of the destroyed 4th block of the plant on February 24, 2011 ahead of the 25th anniversary of the meltdown of reactor number four due to be marked on April 26, 2011. (SERGEI SUPINSKY/AFP/Getty Images) #

34
Graffiti is seen on a wall of one of the buildings in the ghost city of Pripyat, near Chernobyl nuclear power plant on February 22, 2011. (SERGEI SUPINSKY/AFP/Getty Images) #

35
An interior view of a building in the abandoned city of Pripyat near the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in Ukraine February 24, 2011. (Reuters/Gleb Garanich) #

36
A man visits his ruined house inside the exclusion zone around the Chernobyl nuclear reactor in the abandoned village of Lomysh, southeast of Minsk, Belarus on March 18, 2011. (Reuters/Vasily Fedosenko) #

37
Anya Savenok, 9, who was born physically affected due to high radiation according to doctors, plays in her home in the village of Strakholissya, just outside the exclusion zone around the closed Chernobyl nuclear power plant April 1, 2006. (Reuters/Damir Sagolj) #

38
A woman passes by a sign on a fire station, displaying the local time, temperature and radioactivity level data, in Russia's far eastern city of Vladivostok on March 16, 2011. (Reuters/Yuri Maltsev) #

39
Vika Chervinska, an eight-year-old Ukrainian girl suffering from cancer waits to receive treatment with her mother at the children's hospital in Kiev Tuesday, April 18, 2006. Greenpeace stated in a 2006 report that more than 90,000 people were likely to die of cancers caused by radiation from the Chernobyl nuclear disaster, countering an earlier United Nations report that predicted the death toll would be around 4,000. The differing conclusions underline the contentious uncertainty that remains about the health effects of the world's worst nuclear accident as its 25th anniversary approaches. (AP Photo/Oded Balilty) #

Related links and information
First-Person Account of Dealing with Chernobyl's Fallout- The Atlantic, 3/23
Chernobyl disaster- Wikipedia entry
Russian Chernobyl drama echoes Japan fears- France 24, 3/23

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