CHERNOBYL: CHRONOLOGY OF A DISASTER
http://www.nirs.org/mononline/nm724.pdf
Chernobyl - 200,000 sq km contaminated; 600,000 liquidators; $200 billion in damage; 350,000 people evacuated; 50 mln Ci of radiation. Are you ready to pay this price for the development of nuclear power? (Poster by Ecodefence, 2011)
At 1.23 hr on April 26, 1986, the fourth reactor of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant exploded.
The disaster was a unique industrial accident due to the scale of its social, economic and environmental impacts and longevity. It is estimated that, in Ukraine, Belarus and Russia alone, around 9 million people were directly affected resulting from the fact that the long lived radioactivity released was
more than 200 times that of the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
Across the former Soviet Union the contamination resulted in evacuation of some 400,000 people. About 200,000 km2 of land was, and is, contaminated by radioactive Caesium-137 above 37,000 Bq/m2 (intervention level). In area terms, about 3,900,000 km2 of Europe was contaminated by caesium-137 (above 4,000 Bq/m2) which is 40% of the surface area of Europe. Curiously, this latter fi gure does not appear to have been published and, certainly has never reached the public's consciousness in Europe.
This contamination will persist for centuries, and many countries as well as Belarus, Ukraine and Russia will need to continue with food restriction orders for decades to come. The economic consequences of the accident remain a massive burden on the countries most affected; Ukraine and Belarus continue to spend a large percentage of their Gross National Product on trying to deal with the consequences of the accident.
About the health consequences of the Chernobyl accident, much research has been conducted, many reports have been written and still many uncertainties exist. Although official accounts points to 4,000 expected cancer deaths from Chernobyl in Belarus, Ukraine and Russia, the real prediction in IAEA/WHO reports is more than 9,000. Many other studies are expecting a multiple of that number. A 2009 publication that looked to Russian and Ukraine language reports, left out of the offi cial studies, calculate a number of casualties of up to 900,000. The full impact of the Chernobyl disaster may never be known.
power plants are designed to withstand natural disasters (hurricanes, floods, earthquakes, etc.) and to withstand aircraft crash and blasts from outside. The safety is increased by the possibility in Russia to select a site far away from bigger towns." (page 647: "Zur Betriebssicherheit sind die Kraftwerke
(VVER and RBMK) mit drei parallel arbeitenden Sicherheitsysteme ausgeruested. Die Kraftwerke sing gegen Naturkatastrophen (Orkane, Ueberschwemmungen, Erdbeben, etc) und gegen Flugzeugabsturz und Druckwellen von aussen ausgelegt. Die Sicherheit wird noch durch die in Russland moegliche Standortauswahl, KKW in gewisser Entfernung van groesseren Ortschaften zu erstellen, erhoeht."
In the June 1983 issue of the IAEA-bulletin, Mr. B. Semenov,Deputy Director General, Head of IAEA Department of Nuclear Energy and Safety, sums up "many factors favoring the channel-type graphite-uranium boiling-water reactors" and concludes: "The design feature of having more than 1000 individual primary circuits increasing the safety of the reactor system – a serious loss-of-coolant accident is practically impossible." (page 51)
1972
In 1972 a discussion took place in Kiev about the type of nuclear plant to be built at Chernobyl. Chernobyl's director, Bryukhanov, supported construction of Pressurized Water Reactors (PWRs). He informed the Ukraine Minister of Energy, Aleksei Makukhin, that an RBMK (a boiling water reactor)releases forty times more radiation than a PWR. However, the scientist Alekzandrov opposed this, saying that the RBMK-1000 was not only the safest reactor, it produced the cheapest electricity as well. For this reason it was decided to build the RBMK pressure tube reactors.
1979
February-March: according to data in the possession of the KGB, design deviations and violations of construction and assembly technology are occurring at various places in the construction of the 2nd generating unit, and these could lead
The Chernobyl nuclear power plant:
Type & Capacity Start Construction Criticality Shut down
Block 1 RBMK-800 March 1970 September 1979 November 1996
Block 2 RBMK-1000 February 1973 December 1978 October 1991
Block 3 RBMK-1000 March 1976 December 1981 December 2000
Block 4 RBMK-1000 April 1979 December 1983 April 1986
Block 5 RBMK-1000 December 1981 - -
Block 6 RBMK-1000 December 1983 - -
RBMK's (also called Light-Water-Cooled, Graphite-Moderated Reactors, or LWGRs), use light water as a coolant and graphite
as a moderator
1- PRELUDE
Chernobyl is safe…. Well, until April 26, 1986, that is…
Before the Chernobyl accident very little was known about the Chernobyl type reactor, the RBMK. One of the few publications before 1986, in the December 1983 issue of the German nuclear industry monthly atomwirtschaft was written by H.Born from one of the main German utilities VEW. He writes:
"For operational safety, the nuclear power plants (VVER and RBMK) are equipped with three parallel safety systems. Theto mishaps and accidents. Similar report on Unit 1 (both units are in operation, at the time).
1983
December: The construction of Unit 4 at Chernobyl was completed by December 1983. On 21 December a press report was released which stated that the previous day the nuclear power plant had become operational. This news was reported by the media on 22 December, a festive day for workers in the energy industry. In the Soviet Union it was customary for all sections of public employment to have their own special day, when they receive public acclaim for their work and are given extra bonuses.
That the production of electricity started on 20 December is quite remarkable, because usually there is a time lapse of about six months between the completion of the construction and the plant becoming operational. On this subject Zhores Medvedev noted that it was common practice in the Soviet Union for people to declare an industrial project to be ready for operation on the understanding that any problems will be solved as quickly as possible. In this way, the production plan already set can still be met. Besides which, not signing the declaration on 31 December 1983 would have resulted in thousands of employees missing their chances of bonuses and other extras. This concerns bonuses of up to three months salary extra. Later it became apparent that in the period up to 1985 the turbine had been tested, but without results.
The question is still why the test was not repeated again immediately, but had to be left until April 1986.
Chernobyl-4 Goes Critical
On Dicember 14,1983,Pravda reported that the fourth unit of Chernobyl nuclear plant in the Uluraina had "just achieved criticality" All four Chernobyl Units have a capacity of 100MW each. Thus the Chernobyl Nuclear power plant has became the second (after the Lenigrad NPP)in the USSR to reach to 4000-MW capacity.
Chernobyl-4 is the third Soviet nuclear Power Units to go into operation during 1983 - news of more might well be announced by yearend after we have gone to press.
Since the start-up of Chernobyl-1. 1977, the station has produced 80 Billion KWh of elctricity. Chernobyl-2 started-up 1979 and unit NO.3 in 1981.
P.F.
1984
In April 2003, secret KGB documents released in Ukraine show that there were problems with the Chernobyl nuclear plant. One 1984 document notes defi ciencies in the third and fourth block, and also of poor quality of some equipment sent from Yugoslav companies.
1985
April: The Minister of Energy, Anatoly Mayorets, decreed that information on any adverse effects caused by the functioning of the energy industry on employees, inhabitants and environment, were not suitable for publication by newspapers, radio or television. On 18 July 1986, shortly after the Chernobyl accident, this same minister forbade his civil servants from telling the truth about Chernobyl to the media.
1986
February: Vitali Sklyarov, Minister of Power and Electrifi cation of Ukraine, in reference to the nuclear reactors in Ukraine, is quoted in Soviet Life magazine (page 8) as saying: “The odds of a meltdown are one in 10,000 years.”
27 March: Literaturna Ukraina (Ukrainian Literature) publishes an article written by Ms Lyubov Kovalevska (believed to be a senior manager at Chernobyl NPP) in which she writes that substandard construction, workmanship and concrete, along with thefts and bureaucratic incompetence are creating a time bomb “The failures here will be repaid, repaid over the decades to come.”
It remains uncertain whether the information on the course of the accident is completely reliable. In
1987, five possible courses of events leading up to the accident were put forward.
However, the following account is the one generally accepted.
25 April (Friday)
13.05 hours (local time): Preparations for the turbine test
The turbine test
One of the tests incompletely carried out before the reactor becoming operational was on the functioning of the turbine in the case of a defect.
That the production of electricity of the fourth Chernobyl reactor started on 20 December 1983 was, as said, quite remarkable, because usually there is a time lapse of about six months between the completion of the construction and the plant becoming operational.
All the components have to be tested before the actual production process is started. But, in Unit 4 at Chernobyl there was a celebration in March 1984 (only three months after the reactor was operational) to mark the fact that already one million kilowatt hours had been produced, even though at that time not all the components had been thoroughly tested. One of the tests incompletely carried out before the reactor becoming operational was on the functioning of the turbine in the case of a defect.
If a defect is present, the turbine should then slow down, but continue to produce electricity. This electricity is necessary to work the circulation pump and control rods, and to provide lighting for the control room and control panel. This supply of electricity is essential for the safety of the reactor,
and on no account should it fail.
Because it takes twenty seconds for the control rods to reach their most extreme position in the case of a defect, it is of vital importance to know whether the turbine can produce the necessary electricity for those twenty seconds, until the emergency generator is able to take over the supply of electricity. This test was carried out on the night of 25 - 26 April 1986, and was the cause of the disaster.
This test should have been carried out before the power plant was put into operation. In actual fact, such a test was carried out earlier - but failed. This became apparent in July and August 1987 during the trial of six people held to be responsible for Chernobyl. The judges' verdict states that on 31 December 1983, director Bryukhanov signed a document declaring that all the tests had been carried out successfully.
begin. For this test, the plant's capacity must be reduced and for this reason one turbine is turned off.
14.00 hours: The controller of the Ukraine electricity network requests that the test be delayed. All electricity from Unit 4 is necessary. It is not clear why it was not predictable beforehand that work would have to continue all through Friday afternoon in order to achieve the production planned for April.
Times-zones
Local times: At the time of the 1986 accident, Ukraine was one of the Republics of the USSR (Union of Socialist Soviet Republics) and had Moscow-time (GMT+3). Although Ukraine changed its time to GMT+2 after it declared independence from Moscow in August 1991, times mentioned in the Chronology are historical local times (GMT+3).
Times mentioned concerning Sweden's Forsmark, are also GMT+3. Time difference (in 1986) between Chernobyl and Sweden was 2 hours.
16.00 hours: The day shift leaves. The members of this shift have been given information about the test during the previous days, and know about the entire procedure. A special team of electronic engineers is present.
23.10 hours: Preparations for the test start again. The ten hour delay has a large number of consequences. Firstly, the team of engineers is tired. Secondly, during the test, the evening shift is replaced by the night shift. This shift has fewer experienced operators, besides which they were not prepared for the test. Achier Razachkov, - Yuri Tregub and A. Uskov are the operators who were responsible for carrying out the test earlier in the day: later in interviews they declared that test procedures were only explained to the day and evening shifts.
Yuri Tregub decides to stay and help the night shift.
26 April (Saturday)
01.00 hours: During preparations for the test, the operators have diffi culty keeping the capacity of the nuclear plant stable.
While doing this they make six important mistakes.
1. The control rods which can stop the reactor are raised higher than regulations permit. Operator Uskov of the day shift said later that he would have done the same. He said: "We often don't see the need to follow the instructions to the letter, because rules are often infringed all around us." As well as this, he pointed to the fact that during training it was repeated over and over again that "a nuclear power plant cannot explode". Operator Kazachkov said: "We have often had fewer control rods than were required, and nothing ever happened.
No explosion, everything just went on as normal."
2. The plant's capacity decreases to below the safe level.
Because of this the core becomes unstable. Preparations for the test should have been stopped by now. It should have been obvious that all attention should be given to measures for regaining the plant's stability.
3. In order to raise the capacity, an extra circulation pump is turned on. Because of the strong cooling down, the pressure falls, thus reducing the reactor's capacity rather than increasing it. Normally at this stage the scram system should start working, but in order to still be able to carry out the test, this system is turned off.
4. The automatic emergency shut-down system is turned off in order to prevent the reactor stopping itself.
5. The systems to prevent the' water level decreasing too much and the temperature of the fuel elements becoming too high are also turned off.
6. Finally, the emergency cooling system is turned off to preprevent it working during the test.
1.23.04 hours: The real test now begins. The power plant's capacity suddenly increases unexpectedly.
1.23.40 hours: Leonid Toptunov, responsible for the control rods, presses a special button for an emergency shutdown.
The test has been going on for 36 seconds.
1.23.44 hours: The control rods start to descend, but shocks can be felt. The operators see that the control rods have become stuck. The fuel tubes have become deformed because of the large increase in the steam pressure.
1.24.00 hours: The test has now been going on for 56 seconds. Pressure in the reactor is now so high that the fuel elements burst and small particles land in the cooling water.
The cooling water turns into steam and pressure in the tubes increases: they burst.
The 1000 ton lid above the fuel elements is lifted: the first explosion. The release of radiation starts. Air gets into the reactor. There is enough oxygen to start a graphite fi re. The metal of the fuel tubes reacts to the water. This is a chemical reaction which produces hydrogen, and this hydrogen explodes:
the second explosion. Burning debris fl ies into the air and lands on the roof of Chernobyl Unit 3. (There was barely any attention paid to this hydrogen explosion in the Soviet report about the accident. In studies commissioned by the US government, however, it was concluded that the second explosion was of great signifi cance, and that the original explanation of the accident was incorrect. Richard Wilson of the Harvard University in the US said this second explosion was a small nuclear explosion.)
The head of the night shift, Alexander Akinhov, and the engineer responsible for industrial management, Anatoly Diatlov, do not believe that an accident has taken place. When somebody
claims the core has exploded, they send out operators to examine the core. These people are killed by radiation. On hearing the report that the reactor has been destroyed Akimov cries out, "The reactor is OK, we have no problems." Akimov and Diatlov, assisted by manager Bryukhanov and engineer N.Fomin, keep ordering the operators to add more cooling water. They remain convinced that there is nothing wrong. Akimov and Toptunov, who was responsible for the control rods, both died of radiation illness. Diatlov and Fomin were both sentenced to ten years imprisonment for infringement
of the safety regulations. However, at the end of 1990 they were both released.
2- THE ACCIDENT AND IMMEDIATE CONSEQUENCES
Unit 4 of the Nuclear power plant at Chernobyl explodes.
Debris fl ies into the air and lands on the roof of Unit 3 which is right next to the exploded Unit 4. The units share a communal machine turbine hall with a roof of bitumen, a fl ammable material.
Thirty fi res develop. The fact that the accident happens at night has one great advantage: in the daytime, 2000 people are working on the construction of Chernobyl Units 5 and 6.
These people are now at home.
01.25 hours: The fi re alarm rings at the local fi re station. Meanwhile more people are killed: The nuclear plant's fire fighters arrive with three fi re engines. The leader, Lieutenant Pravik, quickly realizes that his team is too small and asks the fi re brigades from Pripyat, the town of Chernobyl and the entire area of Kiev for their assistance. Pravik and his team climb onto the roof of the machine hail and start their attempts to extinguish the fi re. The fi re brigade, from Pripyat arrives minutes later and fi ghts the fi res in the reactor building. Pravik and several firemen from Pripyat die later of radiation illness.
01.45 hours: New teams of fi re fi ghters from the area arrive.
They know nothing about the danger of radiation, have no protective clothing or dosimeters. One of the fi re engine drivers, Grigory Khmel later said: "We arrived at ten minutes to two in the morning. We saw graphite lying everywhere. I kicked a bit of it. Another fi reman picked up a piece and said 'hot'. Neither of us had any idea of radiation. My colleagues Kolya, Pravik and others all went up the ladder to the roof of the reactor. I never saw them again."
02.15 hours: The Pripyat department of the Ministry of Home Affairs calls a crisis meeting. It is decided to organize a road block in order to prevent cars from entering or leaving the town. Police assistance is requested. Thousands of police arrive; and, as with the fi re fi ghters, they have no knowledge of radiation, no dosimeters or protective clothing. Later, in 1988, it is admitted that a total of 16,500 police were deployed.
At that moment (1988) of those, 57 people had developed chronic radiation illness, 1500 of them suffered from chronic respiratory problems and 4000 suffered from other symptoms.
03.12hours: An alarm signal goes off at the army headquarters in the central area of the Soviet Union at 03.12 hours.
General Pikalov decides to send in troops to help. They arrive in Kiev at 14.00 hours. These are the fi rst people to arrive well prepared for their task. About the same time, the responsible authorities such as the Energy Minister, A. Mayorets, hear that an accident has occurred, but are led to believe it is a small defect.
05.00 hours: In spite of the fi res, Chernobyl Unit 3 is not closed down until fi ve o'clock am.
06.35 hours: No fewer than 37 fi re brigades, with a total of 186 fi re fi ghters, have been called in to extinguish all the fi res; the fire in the reactor could not actually be extinguished. The importance of the deployment of these fi re fi ghters cannot be emphasized enough. The roof of Unit 3 caught fire immediately, which meant that this reactor could have been seriously damaged as well. The nuclear plants' machine hell is also connected to Units 1 and 2. An explosion in the machine hall could have led to the destruction of all four Chernobyl reactors.
An explosion was only averted by spraying nitrogen at the last minute. Four of the eight people who did this died shortly afterwards.
20.00 hours: A government committee is established, led by Valery Legasov; at eight o'clock in the evening the committee arrives in the area. They are surprised by the bits of graphite they see lying around. None of them suspect a graphite fi re.
26 April to 4 May 1986: Most of the radiation is released in the fi rst ten days. At fi rst, southerly and southeasterly winds predominate. The fi rst radioactive cloud went high into the atmosphere and winds blew it northwest away from Ukraine toward Sweden. It was Kiev's good fortune that the wind
carried the radioactive cloud away at fi rst rather than directly to the Ukrainian capital and its 3 million population as it did several days later. At the end of April the wind switches to the north and northwest. There are frequent but local showers.
This results in a very varied regional and local distribution of the radiation.
27 April (Sunday)
A radius of 10 km around the plant (cities of Pripyat and Yanov)
evacuated (“for three days” they are told) (50.000 people)
to the town of Poliske (50 km west – coincidently -?- wind is blowing in that direction too). Dosimeters are confi scated.
01.13 hours: The operation of Units 1 and 2 had already been stopped at 01.13 and 02.13 hours, twenty-four hours after the start of the accident at Block 4
07.00 hours: General Pikalov sets out in a truck fi tted out with radiation apparatus. He rams through the closed gates and stops at the plant to measure the radiation. He establishes that the graphite in the reactor is burning, and that an enormous amount of radiation and heat is being given off. Shortly
afterwards - the government in Moscow is warned.
The government committee discusses the necessity of evacuation of the nearby town of Pripyat. Everyone supports evacuation except Professor A.L.Ilyin, chairman of the Soviet Council for Radiation Protection. He thinks the radiation situation will improve. By now, as it is understood that graphite is burning and that radiation is being released, further steps are taken. Firstly, extinguishing water is added. This is a dangerous mistake. Due to the high temperature, the water separates into hydrogen and oxygen, and this mixture of gas can explode; an explosion like this releases heat. Thus, the fire is not extinguished, but fanned by the water. After three fruitless attempts to extinguish the fi re, the authorities decide to throw sand, lead and boron carbide onto the reactor from helicopters. Boron carbide can absorb neutrons and stop the uranium fi ssion. Lead absorbs heat, enabling the temperature to drop. Sand is to extinguish the fi res. Between 27 April and 1 May, about 1800 helicopter fl ights deposit around 5000 tons of extinguishing materials such as sand and lead onto the
burning reactor.
28 April
28 April (Monday)
Forsmark NPP Sweden (times are Chernobyl-times)
09:00 hours: An alarm was sent from Reactor 1, where a routine check revealed that the soles of the shoes worn by a radiological safety engineer were radioactive.
Lars Wahlström, radiology supervisor at Forsmark, has given this summary of the events:
"Something indicated that radioactivity had leaked out from one of the blocks at Forsmark. Rumors about the activity circulated between noon and 14hours and people said 'Now let's leave here.' At the same time news arrived that radioactivity had been detected in Finland. I said, I want evidence.
Among other things I called Studsviks Energiteknik AB, where management was sitting in a crisis meeting and where they said 'We think it's coming from one of our laboratories.' But that wasn't so. Soon I also began to have doubts that there was anything wrong in any of the Forsmark reactors, which I told the National Institute of Radiation Protection. We had even been inside the chimney and checked. Then the Institute said the fallout had come from somewhere in the east, and by around 15.30 it was determined that the fallout defi nitely did not come from Forsmark."
20:00 hours: Radio Moscow broadcasts a Tass’ statement that there has been an accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power station and that there have been casualties. “Measures are being taken to eliminate consequences of the accident.
Aid is being given to those affected. A government commission has been set up” according to Tass. From about 30 minutes later west-European news agencies are reporting an “incident in a Ukrainian nuclear reactor”
23:00 hours: A Danish nuclear research laboratory announces that an MCA (maximum credible accident) has occurred in the Chernobyl nuclear reactor. They mention a complete meltdown of one of the reactors and that all radioactivity has been released.
29 April (Tuesday)
- The sixth item on the main television evening news program, Vremya, says that 2 people died during the accident, a portion of the reactor building was destroyed, and residents of Pripyat
and three nearby towns were evacuated.
- The fi rst real information in the western world came on Tuesday morning, when a powerful American reconnaissance satellite provided Washington analysts with photos of Chernobyl.
They were shocked to see the roof blown off above the reactor and the glowing mass still smoking. The first Soviet
photos of the Chernobyl accident were censored by removal of the smoke before being printed in the newspapers.
- The fi rst offi cial statement by German authorities: Minister of the Interior Zimmermann states there is no danger for the German public: “danger only exists in a radius of 30-50 km of the reactor”.
- Polish authorities decide to distribute iodine tablets in the north-east of the country to infants and children to protect them from thyroid cancer.
30 April (Wednesday)
- Tass carries a government statement denying western reports on mass casualties. The statement repeats the earlier assertion that only two people died during the accident and that 197 have been hospitalized and levels of radiation are decreasing
- Press reports on fi re in second unit: scientist see second fire on satellite images, claims are later denied
17.00 hours: The reactor fi re seems to be extinguished.
May - December 1986
1 May: The accident did not interfere with the May Day parades held on the 1st of May in the Ukrainian capital Kiev and the Belarusian capital Minsk. Apparently the government wanted
to emphasize that all was "normal" although the reactor was still burning and invisible, deadly radioactivity was pouring into the air. However, the Soviet Communists bureaucrats and the nomenclature immediately after the accident removed their children from Kiev and other threatened areas while assuring others that everything was normal until several days later
- The authorities claim the situation is stable. But the amount of radiation released is still enormous, besides which, the wind has changed direction and is now blowing in the direction of Kiev. The material thrown onto the plant does not completely extinguish the fi re and in fact generates a rise in temperature.
Scientists and engineers become aware of a new danger. The hot reactor core could melt into the cement and end up in the water reservoir underneath. A steam explosion would follow, even more powerful than the fi rst explosion.
2 May: More and more radioactivity is released into the area.
Fire fighters start pumping the water out of the storage reservoir underneath the reactor, a long and dangerous task, not completed until 8 May. As a reward, the fi re fi ghters receive 1000 rubles each (approximately 2000 US dollars according to the offi cial rate of exchange).
- Politburo members Ryzhkov and Ligachev visit Chernobyl.
Ukrainian party leader Volodymyr Shcherbitsky visits the area also. Shcherbitsky survived the Chernobyl crisis and was not criticized in the Western press as was Gorbachov for his long 18 day delay in speaking publicly about Chernobyl
- A 30 kilometer zone around the reactor is designated for evacuation (90.000 people).
- According to the Russian permanent representative at the IAEA, chain–reaction inside the reactor has stopped
4 May: The fi rst fi lm footage, shot from a helicopter, is shown on Vremya. The commentator says the fi lm disproves Western reports of massive destruction
- A second step taken to prevent a steam explosion is that of making holes in the earth under the reactor. Fluid nitrogen is pumped into them to freeze the earth.
- Radioactive cloud reaches Japan (8-9,000 km from Chernobyl)
5 May: A government report says an embankment is being constructed on the Pripyat River to prevent it from being contaminated
- To start with, there is a great deal of radioactivity released, nearly as much as on 26 April. However, the release later stops almost entirely. No acceptable explanation has yet been found for this fact. According to Grigory Medvedev, who was a member of the government committee, the fire was extinguished because the graphite had burnt up.
- Canada: health offi cials found that Ottawa rains carried six times as much radioactive iodine as is considered acceptable for drinking-water
- Increased radiation levels are measured in the USA, too
- Hans Blix, director-general, and a IAEA delegation arrives in Moscow. Unsure if the can visit the area
6 May: The first extensive report on the situation appears in Pravda.
- schools in Gomel and Kiev closed, all children are sent elsewhere. This brings total number of people forced to leave:
500.000. 140.000 of which are not allowed to return
- Kiev radio fi nally, eleven days late, warned its audience not to eat leafy vegetables and to stay indoors as much as possible. The Soviet government was very slow to warn its citizens of the precautions they should take: keep children and pregnant women indoors, avoid fresh vegetables and milk, don't drink rainwater, and wash your clothes and your shoes every time you come in.
7 May: Tass reports that many Kiev residents are trying to leave the city and that additional trains and flights have been scheduled. The (Russian) media drops its insistence that everything is under control.
- Bavarian Environmental minister Alfred Dick criticizes maximum radiation levels for vegetables and meat of the (German) Radiation Protection Agency. He says: “If we now start to have maximum levels for Cesium too, we will not even be able to eat meat shortly!”
8 May: In an interview with Izvestiya, Academician Yevgeny Velikhov, vice-president of the Soviet Academy of Sciences and chief scientist sent to Chernobyl, says the disaster is “without precedent”.
9 May: IAEA states that Moscow started to encapsulate the reactor, especially pouring concrete under the reactor, preventing it from reaching groundwater
10 May: According to the IAEA the fi re is extinguished, but temperature in reactor is still rather high. Meanwhile Ukrainian government offi cial states: reactor is still burning and fi refighters are continuously trying to put the fi re out.
11 May: three local offi cials in charge of the transport combine at the plant, are expelled from the party, or reprimanded for mistakes concerning evacuations
14 May: Gorbachov speaks for the fi rst time publicly about the accident on Vremya. He insisted there was no cover-up: “The moment we received reliable data we gave it to the Soviet people and sent it abroad”. He declared his desire for "serious cooperation" with the IAEA, with respect to four specifi c
proposals:
1. The creation of an international regime for safe development of nuclear energy involving close cooperation among all nuclear energy-using states;
2. A highly authoritative special international conference in Vienna under the aegis of the IAEA to discuss these "complex questions";
3. An increased role and scope for IAEA;
4. Safe development of "peaceful nuclear activities," involving the United Nations and its specialized departments, such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP)
These proposals suggested that Gorbachov was broadening the scope of the accident to one of international concern, but at the same time he was implying that such accidents were common enough to warrant the establishment of a global regime to deal with them.
15 to 16 May: New fi res break out and more radiation is released.
22 May: Russian First Deputy Health Minister denies popular believe that vodka (& red wine) is a good cure for radiation exposure.
23 May: A Soviet government committee orders the distribution of iodine preparations. At this point, such prophylaxis is of no medical value. Radioactive iodine is only active for ten days, and will ready have accumulated in the thyroid glands of the inhabitants of the contaminated territories.
Mikhail Gorbachov
Mikhail Gorbachov had been in offi ce only 13 months
when Chernobyl occurred. He had arrived to a warm
response from Western political leaders. Much younger
and more active than his predecessors, he appeared to
herald a time of change in the USSR. In 1986, however,
he inherited an ossifi ed Soviet state that was Leonid
Brezhnev's legacy. Gorbachov's reaction to Chernobyl
was very cautious but, in addition to the defensive posture
adopted by his government initially, he also indicated a
willingness to cooperate with the IAEA. It should be noted
that in 1985 the USSR had agreed to IAEA inspections of
some of its nuclear reactors, and thus this policy was not
necessarily a new departure. Similarly, aid offered from
long-established "friends of the USSR" abroad was also
accepted, while that of individual governments was turned
down.
27 May: A month after the accident the danger is not yet over,.
A concrete foundation will be made, the idea of the sarcophagus is born
30 May: An unprecedented concert took place in Moscow’s Olympic Stadium. The pop concert was organized by leading Soviet rock bands to raise funds for the Chernobyl victims April-October
Soviet authorities try to hush up the scale of the tragedy, admitting reluctantly that about 30 people had died in the first few weeks after the blast. Hundreds of thousands of people (many military reservists) from all over the Soviet Union, now popularly known as "liquidators," are mobilized by the Communist Party to clean up the disaster.
The ‘Liquidators’ are those people who were recruited or forced to assist in the cleanup or the "liquidation" of the consequences of the accident. As a totalitarian government the Soviet Union forced many young soldiers to assist in the cleanup of the Chernobyl accident, apparently without sufficient protective clothing and insuffi cient explanation of the dangers involved. Over 650,000 liquidators helped in the cleanup in the first year. The total number is estimated to be over 1 million.
Many of those who worked as liquidators became ill and according to some estimates about 8,000 to 10,000 have died in the fi rst few years after the accident from the radioactive dose they received. Many more of these young healthy men died in the following years.
9 June: ‘By accident’ a foundation of lead was established under the reactor. Tons of lead thrown on the burning reactor, melted and leaked under the reactor. When the temperature
decreased it solidifi ed.
15 June: Almost the complete management team of the reactor has been dismissed for ‘irresponsibility and lack of control’,
Pravda announces. Amongst them Chernobyl Director Victor Bryukanov and deputies (senior engineer) Nikolai Fomin who will be brought on trial a year later.
20 July: Report (which will be published in full later) of the Government commission of inquiry found that human error caused the disaster.
20 August: The full report on the cause of the accident was submitted (in Russian) to the IAEA. It states there was an extraordinary sequence of carelessness, mismanagement and violations of safety codes leading to the accident.
26 August: Estonian press tell of strikes and demonstrations by Estonian military reservists forcibly conscripted Chernobyl for clean-up labor. In November reports claim 12 people were executed.
20 September: The Soviet Union paid already US$3 billion, mainly for relocation, compensation and loss of power.
29 September: Block 1 of the Chernobyl NPP restarts again, and connects to the grid on Oct. 1.
10 October: Construction-work on Block 5 & 6 is resumed.
9 November: Block 2 restarts.
14 December: A concrete roof ("sarcophagus") is completed over the fourth reactor. It is built to protect the environment from radiation for at least 30 years. 300,000 tons of concrete and 6,000 tons of metal constructions were utilized.
1987
March: Vladimir Chevchenko, a Russian fi lmmaker who made the documentary: Chernobyl, chronicle of frightening weeks, dies due to radiation illness
21 April: Reactor 3 is supplying electricity again
24 April: Construction work on Block 5&6 halted after it was resumed on Oct 10, 1986. On May 23, 1989 it is decided not to complete the reactors
30 July: it was reported that three Russians, Chernobyl Director Victor Bryukanov and deputies Nikolai Fomin and Anatoly Dyatlov were brought to trial and "were found guilty of gross violation of safety regulations which led to the explosion" and were sentenced to 10 years in labor camp. They were released at the end of 1990.
16 September: The Chernobyl disaster will cost the Soviet Union UKPounds 200 billion economic damage, a senior Moscow offi cial disclosed.
November: The U.S. government offi cially doubled its estimate of the ‘background’ radiation.
5/6 December: Still problems with radiation escaping form reactor 4
1988
Norway increased the limit for cesium in reindeer meat for consumption to 6000 Bq/kg. This is extremely high. Sweden also increased their limit to 1500Bq/kg from 300Bq/kg in May 1987. Most countries have a limit of 600 Bq/kg. And even this figure is heavily criticized. But due to this limit much of the reindeer meat can be sold in Scandinavian countries
5 January: Block 3 (which shared a turbine-hall with Block 4) is restarted.
February: In the period May-August 1986, between 20,000-40,000 more Americans than usual died. Statistics can’t prove whether or not it was caused by Chernobyl, but “you can’t escape the fact that something happened in the summer of 1986”
27 April: Two years after the accident Valery Legasov commits suicide. He was the director of the Kurchatov Institute for Nuclear Energy, where the RBMK reactors were designed.
He was also chairman of the scientifi c team sent to Chernobyl immediately after the accident on 26 April 1986 He left behind his memoirs in which he expresses his anger and despair about the safety of nuclear energy in the Soviet Union.
He wrote that he wanted to study the safety problems of the RBMK reactors, and for this reason was opposed by people who said there were no problems. Legasov also wrote that there was a certain inevitability in working towards the accident at Chernobyl. Valery Legasov was the head of the Soviet delegation presenting the research report to the congress in Vienna..
August: Sweden: With the opening of the deer hunting season came alarming news. The Samen in northern Scandinavia are hard hit by the fall-out as there culture and livelihood depends on reindeer. The majority of animals killed contained more than the consumption limit of 1500 Bq/kg caesium-137.
The level of cesium in lake fi sh has also increased over last year.
September: Soviet authorities decided to turn the 30 km zone into a national park. All human activity, including farming is banned there.
22 December: Soviet scientists announce that the sarcophagus now enclosing the reactor was designed for a lifetime of only 20 to 30 years.
1989
Start of the second resettlement phase. About 100 000 people have to leave their villages in the severely contaminated territories of Belarus, Ukraine and Russia.
26 January: Politburo unexpectedly announced a new campaign (concentrated on Belarus) to cope with the consequences of the disaster.
February: The fi rst maps highlighting radiation fallout from Chernobyl are published in the Soviet press.
23 February: First visit of Soviet president Michael Gorbachov to Chernobyl. He spends one hour at the site.
May: Norway: According to the Isotope Lab of the Agricultural University of Norway, 95% of radioactive elements are still present in upper soil layers and weathering processes within the next few years may increase the uptake of the Chernobyl fallout in the food chain (major grazing areas for livestock and domestic reindeer have been particular affected).
23 May: Decision not to complete the two units under construction.
Construction work on Block 5 & 6 resumed on Oct 10, 1986, and already halted on April 24 1987
26 October: Tass reports that during the following year 100,000 people will be evacuated from contaminated areas in Belarus.
3- TRYING TO MINIMIZE THE CONSEQUENCES
1990
Collaboration between Western scientists and experts from Belarus, Ukraine and Russia begins. A delegation of German scientists visits the Chernobyl nuclear power station and the affected regions.
April: According to Yuri Shcherbak, vice-chairman of the Supreme Soviet Commission on Environment & Nuclear Energy said some US320 billion will be needed to handle the consequences
of Chernobyl in the next 10 years.
26 April: A marathon broadcast of 24 hours to raise awareness and money for Chernobyl victims. On soviet national television Telethon Chernobyl on Channel 3 collects about US$100 million.
19 August: IAEA claims the sarcophagus is due to high temperatures and radiation no longer reliable. A new catastrophe cannot be ruled out.
September. Computer data stolen in Minsk and destroyed about health situation and radiation levels from over 670,000 people living in the eastern part of Belarus. Also contamination details from 20,000 settlements were on the disks.
21 September: The IAEA and the Governments of the Soviet Union, the Belarussian and Ukrainian SSR sign a framework agreement on the international consequences of the accident.
“The Chernobyl area affords” according to the IAEA press release, “unique possibilities for carrying out scientifi c research under post-accident conditions, including some areas where radiation levels have subsides but are still above normal background levels.”
1991
A specialized enterprise was organized, and all further work in the zone was done on a professional basis. (All people who worked in the zone until 1990, no matter what task, got status as "liquidator" and the right to social benefi ts.)
April: Soviet authorities announce 200,000 people have been evacuated, in 1991 another 112,000 will be evacuated and in 1992 about 12,000.
April: Laka Foundation publishes in the WISE News Communique an extensive list of contaminated foodstuffs dumped on the world market (especially in southern countries) in the first five years. (see: http://www10.antenna.nl/wise/349-50/conta.html)
15 April: rumors circulating since May 1986 about Soviet air force producing artifi cially rain from radioactive clouds moving towards Moscow in the fi rst days after the accident early May 1986 are confi rmed by soviet scientists during a conference in Berlin, Germany. At the same conference Professor Chernousenko claims, already 7,000 – 10,000 people have died as a result of Chernobyl.
26 April: On the fi fth anniversary of Chernobyl there are mass demonstrations in Kiev and Minsk. The world press focuses on the event, highlighting new evacuations, alleged sicknesses in contaminated zones, and the continuing operation of Soviet RBMK reactors, including those at Chernobyl.
26 April: a special stamp to commemorate the accident is launched in the Soviet Union.
21 May:
IAEA/IAC
releases
study: “Assessment
of Radiological Consequences and Evaluation of Measures for
the Chernobyl Accident”
IAEA conclusions:
- there were no health disorders that could be directly attributed
to radiation exposure. There were no indications of an
increase in the incidence of leukemia and cancers;
- there were signifi cant non-radiation related health disorders
in the populations of both the surveyed contaminated settlements
and control settlements;
- the accident had substantial negative psychological consequences
in terms of anxiety and stress due to continuing and
high levels of uncertainty, relocation and other measures;
- early evacuations undertaken by the authorities – in cases
which could be assessed by the projects – were broadly
reasonable and consistent with internationally-established
guidelines
- protective measures taken or planned for the longer term,
generally exceed what would have been strictly necessary
- offi cial procedures for estimating doses were signifi cantly
sound
- etc
Main criticism on the report:
- study excluded from its subject of investigation the liquidators
(estimated up to 600,000)
- study excluded the 30 km contaminated zone
- study excluded the evacuees from the zone (up to 95,000 –
100,000)
- study excluded hot spots
- There is some ambiguousness about the settlements chosen
for the study: it would seem the selection was deliberate and
arbitrary
- The report substantially underestimate the amount of exposure,
particularly the lifetime dose. It appears that external
exposure is estimated at one-third to one-fourth, and internal
exposure at about one-tenth
- It is not clear how control groups were obtained. Thus, even
though the study recognizes many illnesses and deaths, it was
not able to link them to radiation
- Friends of the Earth claims that the IAEA scientists are
scientifi cally incompetent because they draw concrete conclusions
on the basis of what they themselves admit are “not
always adequate data”.
- The scientist had little or no access to pre-accident health records,
leaving them unable to compare pre- and post-accident
levels of disease and health disorders
- Etc.
According to Greenpeace the only aim of the study was to
“produce a thirty-second sound-bite which is pleasing to the
ear of the Soviet authorities – ‘we didn’t fi nd radiation-induced
health effects’ is constructed to avoid implicating radiation in
the disaster
24 August: Ukraine declares independence from the Soviet
Union after a failed hard-line coup in Moscow.
29 August: On top of the ‘want’-list of the independent Ukraine
is the closure of Chernobyl
12 October: After a fi re breaks out in the second Chernobyl
reactor, this unit too has to be shut down for good.
18 November: Ukraine plans to close the remaining reactors
at Chernobyl in 1993 at the latest.
12 December: Two Bulgarian ex-ministers are sentenced to
imprisonment of 3 and 2 years, because they found guilty of
hushing up the dangers of Chernobyl to the Bulgarian population
after the 1986 accident
1992
March: Ukrainian government reports that cracks have appeared
in the sarcophagus. An international competition is to
be held for a design for a replacement roof.
May & August: forest fi res lift radiation levels in Belarus,
again
July: Ukrainian government launches an international competition
(‘Shelter-2 competition’) for the best project to prevent
the ruins of the reactor from threatening public health and
the environment. A new shelter (‘sarcophagus’) is urgently
needed.
18 September: US experts estimate the economic damage for
Ukraine due to Chernobyl at about US$150 billion
15 October: Block 3 is brought back online. Number 2 will follow
at the end of the month
29 November: Ukrainian nuclear experts warn for Americium-241.
This Pu-241 daughter emits alpha-radiation and is
seen as more dangerous as its parent. Experts say alpha-radiation
will be much higher in 50-70 years from now and hope it
will not spread outside the 30km zone. (see August 4, 2005)
1993
January to March: Establishment of a thyroid centre in Gomel
by the Otto Hug Strahleninstitut, Munich. Gomel is a large
city with a population of 500 000 in the most severely contaminated
region of Belarus.
April: World Health Organization expects sharp rise in both
leukemia and cancers, after numbers in both are increasing
18 June: The international Shelter-2 competition ends. But
Ukrainian government does not award a fi rst prize. The French
consortium Campenon Bernard receives a second prize. None
of the 19 concepts on the shortlist fulfi ls all Ukrainian requirements.
Unclear what happens next. Ukraine is looking to
establish an international fund to raise money.
22 October: Ukrainian government decided, due to electricity
shortage not to close the remaining Chernobyl reactors and
suspends a moratorium on new built
9 December: Russian geochemist Valerin Kopejkin claims
that if international radiation limits for Strontium-90 would be
installed in the Ukraine, Kiev has to be evacuated.
1994
February: The U.S. Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT) releases report: emissions at Chernobyl fi ve times
higher than offi cial IAEA estimate of 50 million curies. MIT
claims 185-250 million Curies was released.
9/10 October: Decision that remaining Chernobyl reactors will
not be closed before 1996 at the earliest
1995
February: The fi rst phase of the European Union-study for
stabilizing the sarcophagus ends. The study claims it is a
huge open radiation source. The consortium is pointing to the
danger of collapse of the fi rst sarcophagus and the problems
of radioactive waste in case of constructing a second containment.
Start of construction is foreseen in April 1996.
March: 100 times more thyroid cancers in Gomel, Belarus,
WHO claims in report published in British Medical Journal.
13 April: President Leonid Kuchma declares Ukraine is ready
to shut down the remaining reactors of the plant by the year
2000. His statement follows a meeting with European Commission
offi cials in Kiev.
25 April: Ukrainian minister of public health Andrej Serdchuk:
125,000 people died due to Chernobyl, 432,000 still treated,
3.66 million affected.
July: In a resolution adopted at a Kiev Conference organized
amongst others by WHO, it is said that mental disorders
spreading among Chernobyl-affected people
20-23 November: new fi ndings presented at a WHO conference
in Geneva, suggest that radiation could also be increasing
the incidence of strokes, heart attacks and liver disease,
as well as damaging the brains of babies at the womb
22 December: At a meeting in the Canadian capital Ottawa,
Ukraine and the G7 group of the world's leading industrialized
nations sign a Memorandum of Understanding, agreeing
to close Chernobyl. It involves commitments worth a total of
some US$2.3 billion in aid from the G7 to support Chernobyl's
closure by the year 2000. The agreed package of loans for
Ukraine's energy sector includes the completion of two more
modern nuclear reactors at Rivne (R4) and Khmelnytsky (K2)
stations in the west of the country. The aid package includes
US$498 million in G7 member grants and $1.8 billion in loan
fi nancing from international agencies. Most of the grant money
-- US$349 million - will be for nuclear decommissioning and
safety. More than US$1.9 billion will be spent to upgrade nuclear
plants and the energy sector as a whole.
1996
April: 20 seconds before the 1986 accident an earthquake occurred
in that region. According to Russian scientists it is not
impossible the seriousness of the accident could have been
increased as a result of that.
April: Genetic mutations have occurred twice as often in children
of families exposed to the radioactive fallout as elsewhere
8-12 April: The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA),
together with the World Health Organization (WHO) and the
European Commission (EC), organized the conference "One
Decade after Chernobyl: Summing up the Consequences".
The conclusions of the IAEA on the health effects of the Chernobyl
disaster are as follows:
- The death rate among "liquidators" did not exceed that for a
corresponding age group.
- Thus far, the only admitted health effect due to radiation is an
increase in thyroid cancers in children. 890 cases were detected.
In the coming decades, several more thousands of cases
of thyroid cancer (4,000-8,000) can be expected.
- No signifi cant increase in leukemia has been found.
- Future cancer deaths will be about 6,660: 2,200 among liquidators
and 4,460 among residents and evacuees of contaminated
areas.
- Other health effects are related to psychological stress: fear
of radiation and a distrust in the government.[1]
See box: IAEA underestimates health consequences
25 April: A French government minister acknowledged that
the French were misled about the impact of the disaster.
Whether forecasters on state television even told viewers that
the radioactive cloud had stopped at France’s borders.
26 April: The President of the UN General Assembly, Diogo
Freitas do Amaral (Portugal), delivers a statement at the special
commemorative meeting on the tenth anniversary of the
Chernobyl accident. In his speech he states: “There continues
to be an acute need for further assistance to the peoples and
countries for whom Chernobyl represents a crushing burden
[..]. To ignore this continuing humanitarian tragedy would be
to reduce these people and the areas most affected to mere
objects of scientifi c research.”
November: Chernobyl shuts down reactor Number One. Only
reactor Number Three remains in operation.
11 November: Cases of thyroid cancer among children in
Ukraine, Belarus and Russia are up by roughly 200 per cent
compared to the 1980s. The WHO estimates that around 4
million people in these three countries have been affected
by the nuclear disaster. Roughly one million are undergoing
medical treatment for consequential health impairments.
December: Authorities of Belarus launched a campaign to
return people to regions which have suffered from Chernobyl.
Nesterenko (director of Institute for Radiation Safety) warns
for a serious error.
1997
April: Belarus has to spent 25% of its national annual budget
on dealing with the effects of the 1986 disaster.
June: President Kuchma says Ukraine is spending US$1 billion
a year to combat the aftermath
November: At a conference in New York, dozens of nations
collect $350 million to rebuild the rapidly deteriorating concrete
sarcophagus. The reconstruction cost is estimated at $760
million.
November: an international assistance program for the
affected areas is launched by the UN Department of Humanitarian Affairs.
The program covers more than 50 projects
in such areas as the health sector, social-psychological and
economic rehabilitation, and the environment, and is based on
the fi ndings of an inter-agency needs assessment mission to
Belarus, Russian Federation and Ukraine, undertaken in May.
December: The Chernobyl Shelter Fund (CSF) was set up
with the purpose of funding the Shelter Implementation Plan
(SIP). The total costs of the SIP are estimated by the EBRD
at US$768 million. Others however think the costs will be
much higher. Vladimir Asmolov of the Russian Kurchatov Nuclear
Institute and involved in the original construction of the
shelter thinks that the costs could reach as much as US$2.5
billion.
IAEA underestimates health consequences
The IAEA conclusions on Chernobyl's health effects are very
conservative and are contradicted by other studies. The
co-organizer of the conference, WHO, presented completely
different fi gures last year. WHO, UNESCO and UNICEF
submitted their fi ndings in a 1995 report to the UN General
Assembly. WHO noted an increase in illnesses and deaths
among liquidators. According to the Chernobyl Union (the
union of liquidators), ten percent of the liquidators have become
less able-bodies and are unable to do full-time work.
[2] The vice-advisor of Chernobyl Affairs of the Ukrainian
parliament, Wladimir Usatenko, says that according to federal
registers, 60,000 of the 360,000 Ukrainian liquidators
have died (not only due to Chernobyl). Another 49,000 have
become less able-bodied and are unable to work.[3] The
amount of tumors among Belarus liquidators is also higher
than normally could be expected [4].
The conclusion of the IAEA that the death rate among liquidators
is not higher than normal and its silence on the high
incidence of diseases indicate a lack of appreciation for the
work they did. The IAEA denies that a signifi cant increase in
leukemia among liquidators has been found. But a study on
a group of liquidators shows that fi ve years after their work,
cases of leukemia reached a peak and subsequently decreased.
The expected time between receiving a high dose of
radiation and the development of leukemia is fi ve years. A
relation therefore seems clear.[5] The IAEA conclusion that
other health problems are related to psychological stress is
questionable. It is certainly true that liquidators and inhabitants
of contaminated areas are fearful of the consequences
of the disaster. This will contribute to the illnesses that
already exist or that can be expected in the future. But to
claim that all diseases other than thyroid cancer and leukemia
are caused by stress is pure nonsense. The rate of birth
defects, for instance, show a correlation with the amount of
contamination. In highly-affected areas, more birth defects
have been diagnosed and the defects are worse in nature.
In Belarus an increase of 161 percent has been recorded.[6]
Sharp increases in diseases among children also belie
IAEA's "psychological stress" claim. UNICEF statistics on
the health conditions of Belarus children from 1990 till 1994
show an increase in different diseases or defects [2].
It seems that the IAEA wants to relate the increase in
diseases mainly to psychological stress. Radiation would
only be the cause of higher incidence of thyroid cancer
and leukemia. In this way, the number of deaths caused
by radiation would be low. If the IAEA is to be believed, the
other diseases/deaths are simply caused by stress. The
IAEA projections on future cancer deaths are very low when
one considers the dose that the liquidators and inhabitants
received. With the received collective dose, calculations can
be made on the expected number of cancer deaths in the
future. When these calculations are made with dose-effect
fi gures from the offi cial pro-nuclear International Commission
on Radiation Protection (ICRP), a death total of 50,000
to 70,000 can be expected - only due to radiation exposure
in the fi rst two years after the accident.[7] The American
radiation expert John Gofman made even more dramatic
calculations. Because the ICRP dose-effect fi gures are too
low, he made calculations with a fi gure for risk for received
radiation six times higher. He calculated that 317,000 to
475,000 deaths can be expected worldwide.[7]) The amount
of 6,660 mentioned by the IAEA would certainly be too low.
Sources:
1. IAEA, "One decade after Chernobyl: summing up the
consequences of the accident. Conclusions." 1996;
2. UN , "Strengthening of the coordination of humanitarian
and disaster relief assistance ... regions". 1995;
3. Der Standard Online on Internet (Austria), 12 April 1996;
4. A. Okeanov, Belarussian Centre for Medical Technologies,
Minsk. "The health status of the liquidators according
to the Belarussian Chernobyl registry data (preliminary
analysis)", 1995;
5. Buzunov et al, "Chernobyl NPP accident consequences
cleaning up participants in Ukraine health status". March
1996;
6. G.I. Lazuik et al, "Frequency changes of inherited anomalies
in the Republic Belarus after the Chernobyl accident".
1995;
7. Greenpeace International, "Chernobyl, 10 years after."
1996 article fi rst published in: WISE News Communique
451, 26-4-96
1998
26 November: Scientifi c seminar on: “Thyroid Diseases and
Exposure to ionizing Radiation: Lessons learned following the
Chernobyl accident” in Luxembourg, organized by the European
Commission. One of the major health consequences of
the Chernobyl disaster is the sudden and great increase in the
number of persons, particularly children, with thyroid carcinoma.
The presentations made at the seminar reviews the
existing knowledge on the subject of radiation induced thyroid
diseases especially in relation to the Chernobyl accident. The
subject is treated from the four points of view: genetic and
environmental factors infl uencing the radiation induced cancer
risk; thyroid doses reconstruction and risk after the Chernobyl
accident; age and molecular biology; and lessons learned following
the Chernobyl accident.
14 December: for the fi rst time Ukraine speaks about closure
of the remaining Chernobyl reactors under conditions: money
from the international community to fi nish construction of two
reactors to replace Chernobyl (K2/R4)
1999
April-May: Reconstruction of the sarcophagus begins. The
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD)
releases US$130 million in grants for this fi rst phase (improvements
of the existing shelter).
14. May: In an internal memo to France prime-minister Jospin
environmental Minister Dominique Voynet states: “a program
to improve energy effi ciency, would fi t better to the Memorandum
of Understanding for closure of Chernobyl, as K2/R4
replacement nuclear reactors”.
5 August: Belarus: After being arrested on July 13, on August
5, 1999, however, Professor Bandazhevsky was formally
charged under Article 169 (3) of the Belarusian Criminal Code
with allegedly accepting bribes from students seeking admission
to the Gomel Medical Institute. Professor Bandazhevsky
founded the Gomel State Medical Institute and was serving as
its rector at the time of his arrest. His scientifi c work focused
on the effects of the Chernobyl disaster on the health of the
people living in and around the city of Gomel, a region close to
the nuclear reactor and thus seriously affected by its radioactive
emissions. According to Amnesty International, Bandazhevsky
was outspoken in his criticism of the Belarusian
authorities’ handling of the Chernobyl disaster’s impact on the
population’s health and had repeatedly stressed the need to
fi nd “innovative solutions” to the problem. He reportedly was
particularly critical of the way that the Ministry of Health spent
the scant resources available for research in this area. Shortly
before his arrest, Bandazhevsky wrote a report about research
conducted by the Belarusian Ministry of Health’s Scientifi c
and Clinical Research Institute for Radiation Medicine on the
effects of the Chernobyl nuclear accident. In this report, he
criticized the manner in which the government’s research was
carried out and its conclusions.
He was held for more than fi ve months in pre-trial detention
under harsh conditions that included temporary isolation, a
poor prison diet, and no access to legal counsel. During his
detention he reportedly suffered from heart ailments, stomach
ulcers, and depression and lost approximately 44 lbs, resulting
in his hospitalization. Professor Bandazhevsky was conditionally
released from prison on December 27, 1999, pending trial.
20 September: Nobody is allowed to live permanently within
15 km of the power plant site. And yet, in the early 1990s, elderly
people began to re-occupy their houses in the said zone.
According to the authorities, there have been some 1500, two
thirds of them women. About 50 people again took up residence
in Chernobyl itself. This resettlement is being tolerated
by the authorities.
18 November: A Coordination Committee Meeting at the
Ministerial Level on International Cooperation on Chernobyl
takes place in New York. US$9.51 million is required for the
1999 Appeal distributed in May. Though the international community
has largely contributed to the shelter fund, the affected
populations have been chronically under funded. The nine
priority projects in the 1999 Appeal are: the modernization
of the Bragin Hospital, the establishment of child rehabilitation
centers, the rehabilitation of contaminated sectors in the
Gomel area (Belarus); providing diagnosis, treatment and
rehabilitation of liquidators, improving management and use
of contaminated forests, and studying the health status of
the posterity of persons affected by radiation. (Ukraine); the
screening of 100,000 children exposed to radiation for early
diagnosis of thyroid pathology, strengthening the network of
centres for social and psychological rehabilitation, and production
lines for measuring and packaging of diary products for
the Bryansk region.
2000
13 January: The Ukrainian Government commissions an
overall concept: parts of the Chernobyl area are to be recultivated.
March: According to documents from the Ukrainian Atomic
Energy regulatory commission, published by Greenpeace, the
safety of the remaining Chernobyl reactors is not guaranteed
after August
March: Belarus: Girls in affected areas had fi ve times the
normal rate of deformations in their reproductive systems and
boys three times the norm. “It is clear we are seeing genetic
changes, especially among those who were less than six
years of age when subjected to radiation”, says Vladislav Ostapenko,
head of Belarus’ radiation medicine institute
April: Kuchma reaffi rms Chernobyl is to be closed by the year
end, but gives no date.
April: The UN Offi ce for the Coordination of Humanitarian
Affairs (OCHA) releases the report "Chernobyl disaster – a
continuing catastrophe". The authors concludes: “The radiological
conditions in the area immediately surrounding the plant
have largely improved, thanks to the international commitment
to improved safety at Chernobyl, which allowed for the
reconstruction and now reinforcement of the sarcophagus.
However, the human consequences of the accident continue
to be relentlessly harsh. The EBRD expects to complete the
refurbishment of the Chernobyl plant site by 2007. A sum of
US$400 million has already been pledged for this operation.
A contribution from donor countries of just 3 per cent of this
amount would have a substantial impact on the alleviation of
human suffering that has resulted from this accident.”
26 April: While visiting the Chernobyl zone, president Lukashenko
of Belarus announces plans to re-locate people to the
zone. “People moving from other parts of the Commonwealth
of Independent States will be given the Belarus nationality
within one week”, he says.
May: Swedish radiation protection authorities have issued recommendations
for the handling of ashes from biomass-fuelled
electricity plants. It was calculated that 5-7% of the yearly
amount of bio fuel ash has to be stored as radioactive waste.
6 June: Kuchma tells visiting U.S.-President Clinton that the
ex-Soviet state will shut down the station on December 15.
Clinton says the U.S. will give Ukraine $78 million in fresh
funds to help improve safety at the plant.
5 July: The EBRD administers the Chernobyl Shelter Fund.
As of July 2000, 37 countries had contributed US$715 million
to the fund, which is 93% of the overall project cost estimate.
Most of the money comes from the European Union and the
G-7 countries.
The fi rst phase of the Shelter Implementation Plan (SIP) consisted
of an expedited review of the collapse risk and the most
critical repairs were conducted. Further, studies were conducted
and designs been made for a structural stabilization of the
shelter, to be conducted in the second phase. Two projects of
the fi rst phase which had to start without delay were repairs
of the beams supporting the roof of the shelter (1999) and
stabilization of the ventilation stack (1998), whose possible
collapse was also threatening the then still operating reactor
3. The second phase will consist of the actual strengthening
of the present sarcophagus and the construction of the new
covering shelter.
November-December: Chernobyl engineers prepare to shut
down the last functioning reactor, Number Three, on December
15. The last fuel rods will not be removed until 2008
and it will be between 30 and 100 years before the station is
completely decommissioned. The EBRD and the European
Union each pledge to lend Ukraine hundreds of millions of dollars
to fi nish construction of Soviet-era reactors at Rivne and
Khmelnitsky (K2/R4) in western Ukraine, to replace lost capacity
from Chernobyl. The EBRD loan is for US$215 million,
while the EU pledges $585 million. Environmentalists protest
against the loans, which they say are going toward reactors
which, although safer than Chernobyl's, are still based on
ageing technology.
12 December: The Chernobyl reactor complex is shut down.
4- AFTERMATH: NO LESSONS LEARNED
2001
April: At an international conference, "Fifteen Years After the
Chernobyl Accident - Lessons Learned" in Kiev, experts, UN
evaluation of health effects. A direct link between the accident
and thyroid cancer among children is recognized internationally.
Indications for other consequences are being observed,
however with limited resources.
4-8 June: International Scientifi c Conference on “Health Effects
of the Chernobyl Accident: Results of 15-Year Follow-Up
Studies” in Kiev, Ukraine. One of the many fi ndings: Liquidators'
state of health worsened
considerably since the accident,
high levels of general
somatic diseases, morbidity
increased more than 17 times
between 1991 and 2000.
18 June: After being arrested
in July 1999, Professor
Bandazhevsky was brought
to trial in Gomel in February
2001. On June 18, 2001, the
Military Board of the Belarusian
Supreme Court convicted
him and sentenced him
to eight years’ imprisonment.
His property was confi scated,
and he is prohibited from
exercising his political rights
and assuming any managerial
position for fi ve years following
his release.
October: After visiting the
affected regions, a delegation
of national and international
experts sponsored by the
United Nations Development
Program (UNDP) and the
United Nations Offi ce for the
Coordination of Humanitarian
Affairs (OCHA) calls for a new
approach in aid programs.
They recommend a developmental
approach, shifting the
emphasis from "help for victims"
towards helping people
to help themselves.
2002
6 February: The United
Nations calls for an entirely
new approach to helping
millions of people impacted
by the Chernobyl accident,
saying that 16 years after the
incident those affected remain
in a state of “chronic dependency,”
with few opportunities
and little control over their
destinies. The report “The Human Consequences of the Chernobyl
Nuclear Accident” notes that some 7 million people are
in some way or another recipients of state welfare connected
with Chernobyl.
See box: Human consequences of the Chernobyl accident
2003
April: secret KGB documents released in Ukraine show that
there were problems with the Chernobyl nuclear plant. One
1984 document notes defi ciencies in the third and fourth
block, and also of poor quality of some equipment sent from
Yugoslav companies.
27 June: The International Chernobyl Research and Information
Network (ICRIN) is launched by the UN Inter-Agency
Task Force on Chernobyl in Geneva. The objective of the
international network is to make Chernobyl research results
systematically accessible both to the affected population and
to the authorities and decision-makers, and also to identify
gaps in existing research
fi ndings. The www.Chernobyl.
info website serves
as an information platform
for ICRIN members and
the public at large. The
activities and addresses of
scientifi c institutions and
organizations can be accessed
in a database on
the website.
Human consequences of the Chernobyl accident.
The United Nations calls for an entirely new approach to helping
millions of people impacted by the Chernobyl accident, saying
that 16 years after the incident those affected remain in a state
of “chronic dependency,” with few opportunities and little control
over their destinies. The UN warns that populations in Belarus,
the Russian Federation and Ukraine would continue to experience
general decline unless signifi cant new measures are
adopted to address health, the environment and unemployment.
The study emphasizes the need for the recovery phase to focus
attention on two broad groups:
The fi rst group includes some 100,000 to 200,000 people
caught in the downward spiral. These are people who live in
severely contaminated areas; people who have been resettled
but remain unemployed; and those whose health remains most
directly threatened, including victims of thyroid cancer. Some
2,000 people have been diagnosed with thyroid cancer, and the
report states that as many as 8,000 to 10,000 additional cases
are expected to develop over the coming years. The report
states that this group of up to 200,000 people, spread across all
three countries, is “at the core of the cluster of problems created
by Chernobyl,” and focusing on their needs and helping them
take control of their futures must be a priority.
The second group identifi ed for priority action includes those
whose lives have been directly and signifi cantly affected but
who are already in a position to support themselves. This
group has found employment, but still must be reintegrated into
society as a whole so that their ongoing needs are addressed
through the mainstream provision of services using criteria
applicable to other members of society. This group includes
hundreds of thousands of individuals.
The report also identifi es a third group, encompassing millions
of people, who have been indirectly impacted by the stigma,
uncertainty and fatalism that have become associated with
Chernobyl. This group, too, needs to be aided through clearer
information and more open and continuous disclosures about
the evolving situation in the region, the report argues. The
report notes that some 7 million people are in some way or another
recipients of state welfare connected with Chernobyl.
The study, carried out by an international panel of experts in
July-August 2001, was commissioned by the UNDP and the
UNICEF, and was supported by the WHO and the OCHA (the
United Nations Offi ce for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs)
August: The European
Bank for Reconstruction
and Development (EBRD)
said it would give Ukraine
US$ 85 million this year to
cover the gaping hole in
reactor 4. The construction
of the new shelter will
start in 2004.
2004
27 April: In New York,
over 600 invited guests
from numerous countries
attended the fi rst
public viewing of the fi lm
"Chernobyl Heart" since it
won this year's Academy
Award for the best documentary
two months ago.
November: Scientifi c
evidence that fallout from
Chernobyl may have
raised cancer rates in
western Europe may have
emerged. Researchers in
Sweden showed a statistically
relevant correlation
between the degree of
fallout and an observed
rise in the number of total
cancer cases.
2005
April: European Commission
confi rms that restrictions
in the UK on the
transport, sale and slaughtering of sheep remain in force ‘in
numerous cattle breeding enterprises especially in the North
of Wales” In Ireland and certain Scandinavian regions, monitoring
is also still conducted.
April: In certain game, wild grown berries and mushrooms
and in carnivorous fi sh (from regions in Germany, Austria,
Italy, Sweden, Finland, Lithuania and Poland) the levels of
Caesium-137 still vastly exceed normal levels. In the regions
worst hit by the fall-out from Chernobyl, contamination levels
will remain high and relatively unchanged for the next decades,
the EC believes.
12 May: At a pledging meeting in London the European
Commission announced an additional €49 million to the
international Chernobyl Shelter Fund (CSF). A total of about
US$200 million are donated at the donor meeting. The project
is estimated to cost US$1,091 million and is planned to be
completed by 2009.
Shelter Implementation Plan
In 2005, the SIP (Shelter Implementation Plan) entered
its fi nal stage. All major Chernobyl site infrastructure
facilities and programs (radiation and industrial protection,
medical training, emergency response) have either been
completed or will be at fi nal acceptance over the next few
months. These facilities and programs will, according to
the EBRD “ensure adequate protection of people during
the construction activities”, which have commenced and
which will signifi cantly increase during the year. Site
services in the construction zone have been renewed
and a change facility constructed. The physical work on
stabilisation of the existing shelter is ongoing under the
contract signed in July 2004. When completed in 2006,
it will eliminate one of the principal risks - the collapse of
the shelter. A comprehensive monitoring system (nuclear,
radiation and seismic) as well as the site access control
and physical protection system are under construction
and scheduled for completion during the fi rst half of 2006.
The tenders for the new safe confi nement - the largest
component of the SIP - are at an advanced stage of
evaluation with contract award scheduled for Autumn
2005. The confi nement is an enormous arch - with a span
of 260 meters and height of 100 meters - to enclose the
existing ‘sarcophagus’ and its radioactive contents for a
period of minimum 100 years. It is being constructed off
site to limit workers’ exposure to radiation. The archshaped
confi nement will be erected and slid into position
over the old shelter via specially built rails. Once in place,
safer working conditions will enable the deconstruction of
unstable parts of the shelter.
4 August: Alpha-radiation from plutonium-241 decay products
is increasing. Pu-241 emits Beta-radiation and has a half-life
of only 14.4 years. It decays in Americium-241which emits
alpha-radiation and has a half life 432.2 years. Result: in
Belarus alpha-radiation is currently three-times as high as in
1986 and in the year 2276 the level will still be twice as high
as shortly after the 1986 disaster. The zone’s americium-241
will reach its maximum level in 2059. Am-241’s alpha radiation
is even more powerful than plutonium’s, and it decays
to neptunium-237, which also decays by way of an energetic
alpha particle and has a half-life of more than 2 million years.
However, the vast majority of radiation exposure is from
beta-emitting caesium-137 which is declining with a half-life of
about 30 years.
5 August: As a result of amnesties, Professor Bandazhevsky's
eight-year prison sentence was reduced to seven years
in July 2002 and, in early 2004, his sentence was reduced to
six years. According to the Belarusian government, Articles
90 and 91 of the Criminal Code of the Republic of Belarus
stipulate that Professor Bandazhevsky's sentence could be
reduced when he had served half of the term of the prison
sentence handed down by the court, and conditional early release
(“parole”) reportedly was possible after two thirds of the
sentence had been served, on January 6, 2005. But it was not
until August 5, 2005, under an amnesty declared by President
Lukashenka to celebrate the 60th anniversary of World War II,
that Professor Bandazhevsky was released.
30 August: The latest radiation measurements in the area
immediately surrounding the Chernobyl nuclear power plant
indicate that the levels of radioactive contamination are falling.
Ukraine’s authorities are therefore opening some of the
evacuation zone of 2,800 square kilometers, from where all
inhabitants were relocated after the 1986 nuclear accident, for
partial resettlement. However, those who return will lose the
welfare benefi ts they have been entitled to so far.
31 August: The WHO completes its working draft Health
Effects of the Chernobyl Accident and Special Health Care
Programs Report of the UN Chernobyl Forum Expert Group
"Health". From this report and others in this series, IAEA
creates Chernobyl's Legacy: Health, Environmental and
Socio-economic Impacts and Recommendations to the Governments
of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine [date
of release: 5 September 2005]. Again the work of the WHO
is overshadowed by the so-called WHA 12.40, which is the
agreement between WHO and IAEA that allows either to keep
information from the other, which would hurt their respective
mandates. Since it is the IAEA's mandate "to accelerate and
enlarge the contribution of atomic energy to peace, health
and prosperity throughout the world", it is doubtful that IAEA
could conduct unbiased health studies on the effects of the
Chernobyl nuclear explosion. In fact, IAEA has no mandate to
conduct health studies at all.
September: Ukrainian authorities retrieve radioactive fuel
believed to be stolen from Chernobyl. A plastic bag, containing
14 pieces of fuel, where fond during a routine search of the
reactors perimeter. The material is believed to be stolen in
1995 but left in the plant when additional security measures to
detect radiation were installed after the theft in 1995
5 September: According to the IAEA’s press release Chernobyl:
The True Scale of the Accident, introducing the controversial
report “Chernobyl’s Legacy: Health, Environmental and
Socio-Economic Impacts” a total of up to four thousand people
could eventually die of radiation exposure from the Chernobyl
accident. And “as of mid-2005, however, fewer than 50 deaths
had been directly attributed to radiation from the disaster”.
See box : IAEA study “rubbish”
November: Eleven farms, covering 11,300 hectares in Scotland,
are still so contaminated by the Chernobyl accident that
their sheep are considered unsafe to eat.
15 December: In a offi cial statement Ukraine president
Yushchenko says no foreign fuel will be stored at Chernobyl. A
week earlier, he stated that the government was studying the
possibility of storing foreign nuclear fuel at Chernobyl. After a
loud public outcry he apparently discarded the idea.
16 December: France: The SCPRI (Central Service for
Protection against Radioactive Rays) knew of high levels of
contamination in Corsica and southeastern France but kept
the information under wraps. The study was commissioned by
a magistrate who since 2001 has been examining allegations
that the atomic cloud from Chernobyl caused a surge in cases
of thyroid cancer in parts of France. According to the report
the SCPRI issued imprecise maps that concealed high levels
of fallout in certain areas.
2006
January: The EBRD stated the Shelter Implementation Plan
(SIP) had reached a crucial point, with the awarding of the
contract for the NSC (New Safe Confi nement) expected within
the next few months. The EBRD has said completion of the
main construction projects is scheduled for 2008 or 2009.
Stabilization work on the sarcophagus has begun, with two
of eight stabilization activities already complete. The aim is to
make the sarcophagus stable for 15 years, allowing time for
the NSC to be constructed. A winner of a tender was said to
be announced on a donor conference on February 14. However,
there were too many unsolved problems to announce the
companies name.
IAEA study “rubbish”
Chernobyl relief organizations and many radiation scientists
dispute and criticize the data and fi gures in the
report, calling them “poor”, “quite inappropriate” or simply
“rubbish”. The report is accused of playing down the true
dimension of the catastrophe. Some statements of the
study are challenged as “demonstrably false”. Experts are
also concerned that the UN’s IAEA, may have had “too
great an infl uence” on the study.
Dr. Rosalie Bertell, a well known expert, has made many
comments on the IAEA’s press release. One of these
comments is on the following quote: “Approximately 1000
on-site reactor staff and emergency workers were heavily
exposed to high-level radiation on the fi rst day of the accident;
among the more than 200,000 emergency and recovery
operation workers exposed during the period from
1986-1987, an estimated 2200 radiation-caused deaths
can be expected during their lifetime”. Bertell: “Radiationcaused
deaths is a loaded statement. It assumes that
only death is considered to be detrimental, and eliminates
the consideration of all severe and debilitating morbidity.
Moreover, these scientists, trained by the documents
released by International Commission on Radiological
Protection (ICRP) over the last fi fty years, have accepted
without question that the only health effects “of concern”
attributable to radiation are deaths from cancer. Non-fatal
cancers are basically of no concern. These are administrative
decisions and not science.[..]”
Dr. Angelica Claussen from the German branch of the
IPPNW remarks: “Studies conducted for the International
Chernobyl Project of the IAEA took place from January
1990 to the end of February 1991. In 1990 alone the rate
of new cases of thyroid cancer in children in Belarus was
30 times higher than the 10 year average.” The IAEA report
states however: “The offi cial data that were examined
did not indicate a marked increase in the incidence of
leukemia or cancers. (..)
Reported adverse health effects attributed to radiation
were not substantiated either by those local studies that
were adequately performed or by the studies under the
Project.. (..) The children who were examined were found
to be generally healthy. (..).” Later independent research
by the BBC has proved that the IAEA and its international
commission of experts were already in possession of all
of the relevant facts at the time of the conference and the
presentation of the report, including the histopathological
evidence for a marked increase in the rate of thyroid cancers.
It is alarming to ascertain that this deliberate deception
of the general public was practiced by such experts
as Professor Mettler (Director of the medical expert group
of the International Chernobyl Project) and other experts
from the EU and Japan.
6 April: The New Scientist magazine is quoting two independent
scientists from the UK, Ian Fairlie and David Sumner,
who are accusing the IAEA and the WHO of downplaying the
impact of the Chernobyl accident. They say that the death toll
from cancers caused by Chernobyl will in fact lie somewhere
between 30,000 and 60,000, up to 15 times as many as offi
cially estimated. Fairlie and Sumner accuse the IAEA/WHO
report, released 5 September 2005, of ignoring its own prediction
of an extra 5000 cancer deaths in the less contaminated
parts of Ukraine, Belarus and Russia, and of failing to take
account of many thousands more deaths in other countries,
where more than half of Chernobyl's fallout ended up. Zhanat
Carr, a radiation scientist with the WHO admitted that the
deaths were omitted because the report was a “political communication
tool”. Fairlie and Sumner's accusations are backed
by other experts.
6 April: Also released on this day is the report Health Effects
of Chernobyl – 20 Years After the Reactor Disaster by the
IPPNW in Germany and the German Society for Radiation
Protection (GfS). They also belies the claim by the IAEA that
less than 50 people died as a result of the accident at Chernobyl.
The facts presented by the composers of the report
show that the IAEA fi gures contain serious inconsistencies.
For instance, the IAEA claim that future fatalities due to cancer
and leukemia in the most heavily exposed groups are expected
to number 4000 at the most. However, the study by the
WHO, that this claim is based on, forecasts 8930 fatalities.
“And when one then reviews the reference given in WHO
report, one arrives at 10,000 to 25,000 additional deaths due
to cancer and leukemia”, says Dr. Pfl ugbeil from the GfS.
The IPPNW report documents the catastrophic dimensions of
the reactor accident, using scientifi c studies, expert estimates
and offi cial data. Some of them are mentioned here:
- 50,000 to 100,000 liquidators (clean-up workers) died in the
years up to 2006. Between 540,000 and 900,000 liquidators
have become invalids;
- Congenital defects found in the children of liquidators and
people from the contaminated areas could affect future generations
to an extent that cannot yet be estimated;
- Infant mortality has risen signifi cantly in several European
countries, including Germany, since Chernobyl. The studies
at hand estimated the number of fatalities amongst infants in
Europe to be about 5000;
- In Bavaria alone, between 1000 and 3000 additional birth
defects have been found since Chernobyl. It is feared that in
Europe more than 10,000 severe abnormalities could have
been radiation induced;
- In Germany, Greece, Scotland and Rumania, there has been
a signifi cant increase in cases of leukemia;
18 April: A new Greenpeace report has revealed that the full
consequences of the Chernobyl disaster could top a quarter
of a million cancer cases and nearly 100,000 fatal cancers.
The challenges the UN IAEA Chernobyl Forum report, which
predicted 4,000 additional deaths attributable to the accident
as a gross simplifi cation of the real breadth of human suffering.
The new data, based on Belarus national cancer statistics,
predicts approximately 270,000 cancers and 93,000 fatal
cancer cases caused by Chernobyl. The report also concludes
that on the basis of demographic data, during the last 15
years, 60,000 people have additionally died in Russia because
of the Chernobyl accident, and estimates of the total death toll
for the Ukraine and Belarus could reach another 140,000. The
report also looks into the ongoing health impacts of Chernobyl
and concludes that radiation from the disaster has had a devastating
effect on survivors; damaging immune and endocrine
systems, leading to accelerated ageing, cardiovascular and
blood illnesses, psychological illnesses, chromosomal aberrations
and an increase in fetal deformations.
28 October: There are 36 areas of upland Norway where
Chernobyl contamination still requires controls on sheep.
According to the Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority
(NRPA), levels of caesium-137 reached 7 kBq/kg in sheep this
year, more than twice the maximum levels in previous years.
The discovery of such high levels of radioactivity so long after
the Chernobyl accident came as a surprise, a NRPA spokesman says.
10 November: Ukrainian President Victor Yushchenko issues
a decree establishing 14 December as an annual holiday
called "Liquidators' Day".
30 November: Today is the 20th anniversary of the technical
acceptance (licensing) of the sarcophagus, built under
extreme conditions and designed to last 30 years, though the
Ukrainian Institute for Nuclear Power Plant Safety considers
it impossible to defi ne a service life for the facility. Currently
about 100 contract workers in addition to 80 plant staff work
daily on the sarcophagus. The reinforcement work will considerably
reduce the risk of the sarcophagus's roof collapsing.
The next stage in the Shelter work is erection of a so-called
New Safe Confi nement. A French-led consortium called
Novarka and a group led by CH2M Hill of the US are vying for
the job.
2007
21 April: In Science of Superstorms, a BBC2 documentary
Russian military pilots describe how they create rain clouds
to protect Moscow from radioactive fallout after the Chernobyl
disaster. More than 10,000 km2 of Belarus were sacrifi ced to
save the Russian capital from toxic radioactive material.
23 April: A study of birds around Chernobyl suggests that
nuclear fallout, rather than the impact of relocation and stress
and deteriorating living conditions, as suggested by the IAEA,
may be responsible for human birth defects in the region.
Timothy Mousseau, at the University of South Carolina,
Columbia, and his colleagues examined 7700 barn swallows
from Chernobyl and compared them with birds from elsewhere.
They found that Chernobyl's swallows were more likely
to have tumors, misshapen toes and feather deformities than
swallows from uncontaminated parts of Europe. "We don't fully
understand the consequences of low doses of radiation," says
Mousseau. "We should be more concerned about the human
population."
2 June: The impact of the Chernobyl disaster is often seen as
a problem in Belarus, Ukraine and Russia. The medical effects
of Chernobyl disaster, however, have spread all around the
world. Courier-Life Publications reports on a story of a New
York based medical specialist: "There are between 150 and
200 thousand people in the NY metropolitan area who come
from the affected region, and the 'cancer rates are going up
and up'"
4 June: The incidence of cancer in northern Sweden increased
following the accident at Chernobyl. This was the fi nding
of a much-debated study from Linköping University in Sweden
from 2004. Two studies using different methods has shown a
statistically signifi cant increase in the incidence of cancer in
northern Sweden, where the fallout of radioactive cesium-137
was at its most intense.
16 August: Swedish children born in the months following the
1986 Chernobyl disaster suffered mental impairment from the
radioactive fallout, a study found. The report by economists
Douglas Almond and Lena Edlund from Columbia University,
New York, and their Stockholm University colleague Mårten
Palme carried out an analysis of more than 560,000 Swedish
children born between 1983 and 1988. They found that academic
performance was generally weaker in all children still
in utero at the time of maternal exposure to Chernobyl fallout,
and this effect was most pronounced for those fetuses at 8 to
25 weeks post conception. This is the peak period of brain development
when cells may be particularly vulnerable to being
killed by relatively low doses of radiation. The researchers
say it appears prenatal exposure to radiation levels previously
considered safe was actually damaging to cognitive ability.
17 September: The French-led consortium Novarka signs
a contract to build a new Shelter around the site of Reactor
4 for more than Euro 430 million. Ukrainian President Viktor
Yushchenko and the French trade minister, Herve Novelli,
oversee the signing by the consortium, which includes French
builders Bouygues and Vinci. The consortium will build an
arch-shaped metal structure 105m tall, 260m wide and 150m
long to cover the existing containment structure, which stands
over the reactor and radioactive fuel that caused the accident.
The new sarcophagus will weigh about 18,000 tons -- more
than twice the weight of the Eiffel tower and will resemble a
half-cylinder and slide over the existing sarcophagus. According
to offi cial estimates, the reactor still contains about
95% of the original nuclear fuel from the plant. The EBRD is
contributing Euro 330 million (about US$460m.) to the project
and says it will take about 1,5 years to design the shelter and
another four years to build it.
Offi cials also signed a US$200m contract with the US fi rm
Holtec International to build a storage facility for spent nuclear
fuel from Chernobyl's NPP three other reactors, which kept
operating until the station was shut down in 2000.
2008
23 February: Publication of "Anecdotes and empirical research
in Chernobyl" by researchers from the Royal Society
in Biology Letters. The scientists mop the fl oor with all the
studies on the consequences of Chernobyl that has been
done so far and have received wide attention by the international
media. They state: "Although Chernobyl is perhaps the
largest environmental disaster ever, there has been minimal
monitoring of the status of free-living organisms or humans
in stark contrast to Hiroshima and Nagasaki, where careful
monitoring has continued for over 60 years." And asking themselves:
"Why has there been no concerted effort to monitor the
long-term effects of Chernobyl on free-living organisms and
humans?" Further on: "The offi cial reports by IAEA, WHO and
UNDP were narrative renditions of parts of the literature [..].
Scientifi c enquiry depends on rigorous analysis of data rather
than rendition of anecdotal evidence."
5 March: Atomstroyexport has begun work to extend the
service life of the Chernobyl protective concrete shelter. This
contract envisages the repair of the roof over the confi nement,
installation of protection systems, and the reinforcement of
supporting beams. The project will buy time for the next stage:
the construction of a new confi nement, or arc. The project
moderator is the International Chernobyl Shelter Fund and is
fi nanced by the G8 and European Union countries. The EBRD
has already accumulated US$1b. for the project.
April: The English Edition of Le Monde Diplomatique states
in a background article: "For 50 years dangerous concentrations
of radionuclides have been accumulating in earth, air and
water from weapons testing and reactor incidents. Yet serious
studies of the effects of radiation on health have been obscured
- not least by the World Health Organization." The whole
article, entitled Chernobyl: the great cover-up, can be found at:
[http://mondediplo.com/2008/04/14who]
25 April: The Food Standards Agency Wales reveals that
up to 359 Welsh farms are still operating under restrictions
imposed in the wake of Chernobyl, almost 22 years after
reactor 4 went into meltdown. Heavy rain washed radioactive
material from clouds onto fi elds. The radiation is absorbed
from the soil by plants, which are then eaten by sheep. For the
hundreds of Welsh farmers still living with Chernobyl's legacy,
the restrictions mean their animals are only allowed to enter
the food chain after rigorous safety tests.
26 April: Ukraine pays homage to victims of the Chernobyl
nuclear catastrophe, 22 years after the disaster. "The Chernobyl
catastrophe became planetary and even now continues
to take its toll on people's health and the environment," the
Health Ministry said in a statement.
Activists from across Russia, Ukraine and Belarus turned out
in force in urban centers across the former Soviet republics
to hold ceremonies commemorating 22nd anniversary of the
Chernobyl disaster and express outrage at Russia's current
nuclear plans.
UN chief Ban Ki-moon marks the anniversary by pledging UN
assistance for the stricken region's renewal. In a statement to
mark the anniversary, he notes that the UN General Assembly
has proclaimed 2006-2016 a "decade of recovery and sustainable
development" for the Chernobyl area.
2 October: Researchers from Case Western Reserve University
in Cleveland, Ohio, have tracked the Chernobyl fallout to
reveal that much more plutonium was found in the Swedish
soil at a depth that corresponded with the nuclear explosion
than that of Poland. They took soil samples in various locations
in the two countries, measuring the presence and location
of cesium-137, plutonium (239, 240Pu), and lead-210Pb. Radionuclides
occur in soil both from natural processes and as
fallout from nuclear testing. The collected soil samples reveal
insights based on several conditions, such as how the radionuclides
were delivered to the soil, whether from a one-time
event like the Chernobyl disaster or from atmospheric bomb
testing. As the team examined a range of soil types from the
two countries, they found a spike in 239, 240Pu in Sweden's
soil at a depth that coincides with the Chernobyl disaster, yet
no similar blip in Poland's soil. Meteorological research showed
that it rained in Sweden while the radioactive cloud was
over that country. Leeched of much of its radionuclides, much
less plutonium fell on Poland when the cloud later crossed
over its borders.
2009
30 January: President of Ukraine Victor Yushchenko signs
the law on the government program for decommissioning of
the Chernobyl NPP, and transformation of the Shelter confi -
nement facility into a safer object. The law, coming into force
on January 1, 2010, says the nuclear plant will be fi nally shut
down by 2065. The decommissioning will take four phases.
The nuclear fuel rods will be removed in 2010-2013 and the
reactor systems will be put in dead storage in 2013-2022. After
a cool down of the reactor systems in 2022-2045, the systems
will be demounted in 2045-2065 concurrently with decontamination
of the nuclear power plant's site.
2010
January: 'Chernobyl: Consequences of the Catastrophe for
People and the Environment' written by Alexey Yablokov,
Vassily Nesterenko and Alexey Nesterenko is published by
the New York Academy of Sciences. The book is in contrast
to fi ndings by the WHO, IAEA and United Nations Scientifi c
Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR)
who based their fi ndings on some 300 western research
papers, and who found little of concern about the fallout from
Chernobyl.
While the most apparent human and environmental damage
occurred, and continues to occur, in the Ukraine, Belarus and
European Russia, more than 50 percent of the total radioactivity
spread across the entire northern hemisphere, potentially
contaminating some 400 million people. Based on 5000
published articles and studies by multiple researchers and
observers, mostly available only in Slavic languages and not
available to those outside of the former Soviet Union or Eastern
bloc countries, the authors estimated that by 2004, some
985,000 deaths worldwide had been caused by the disaster.
All life systems that were studied – humans, voles, livestock,
birds, fi sh, plants, mushrooms, bacteria, viruses, etc., with few
exceptions, were changed by radioactive fallout, many irreversibly.
Increased cancer incidence is not the only observed
adverse effect from the Chernobyl fallout – noted also are birth
defects, pregnancy losses, accelerated aging, brain damage,
heart, endocrine, kidney, gastrointestinal and lung diseases,
and cataracts among the young. Children have been most
seriously affected – before the radioactive Chernobyl releases,
80% of children were deemed healthy, now in some areas,
only 20% of children are considered healthy. Many have poor
development, learning disabilities, and endocrine abnormalities.
September: Clearance of the assembly site for the New Safe
Confi nement (NSC) right next to the shelter of Unit 4 and
excavation work for the foundations have been completed. Pilling
for the foundations and the lifting cranes started.
Funds for the construction of the NSC are still lacking. The
completion of the Shelter Implementation Plan, of which the
NSC represents about two thirds of total costs, requires an
additional 600 million euro, with current overall cost estimates
about 1.6 billion euro. So, despite all positive reports on
fi nancial contributions and donor-countries, fact is that only
60% of the necessary funds have been collected. A 'pledging
event' will take place in Kiev in April to coincide with the 25th
Anniversary of the accident.
2011
January: Ukraine legalizes tourist tours to Chernobyl and
Pripyat. Visitors have to sign a waiver, exempting the tour operator
from all responsibility in the event that they later suffer
radiation-related health problems. Driven round at breakneck
speed, and told not to touch any of the irradiated vegetation
or metal structures, "tourists" are invited to briefl y inspect the
stricken number four reactor as the Geiger counter, which
guides carry, clicks ever higher. The most arresting "attraction"
is not the ruined plant, however, but nearby Pripyat. Visitors
can walk through the debris-strewn corridors of its Palace of
Culture, admire its crumbling Olympic-sized swimming pool,
and wander through the empty classrooms of one of its biggest
schools.
4 February: Birds living around the site of the Chernobyl nuclear
accident have 5% smaller brains, an effect directly linked
to lingering background radiation. The fi nding comes from a
study of 550 birds belonging to 48 different species living in
the region. Evidence for developmental errors in the nervous
systems of people exposed to radiation is widespread, including
reduced head size and brain damage. Low levels of ionizing
radiation cause changes in both central and autonomous
nervous systems and can cause radiogenic encephalopathy.
Electroencephalographic studies revealed changes in brain
structure and cognitive disorders. However, psychological effects
of radiation from Chernobyl have recently been attributed
to post-traumatic stress rather than developmental errors, and
increased levels of neural tube defects in contaminated areas
may be ascribed to low-dose radiation, folate defi ciencies or
prenatal alcohol teratogenesis. Surprisingly, studies of high
school performance and cognitive abilities among children
from contaminated areas in Scandinavia that were in utero
during the Chernobyl disaster show reductions in high school
attendance, have lower exam results and reduced IQ scores
compared to control groups. These cognitive effects are assumed
to be due to developmental errors in neural tissue caused
by radiation during early pregnancy.
5- POSTSCRIPT
April 26, 2011 will not be the end for the suffering as a consequence
of the Chernobyl accident. Ironically, it is likely that
Chernobyl's public health impacts will be further downplayed
at the IAEA-sponsored conference in Kiev (20-22 April): “Chernobyl,
25 Years On: Safety for the Future”. This conference is
intended to be "a forum for the scrutiny of the disaster mitigation
measures implemented after the Chernobyl disaster, and
the examination of how the lessons learned can be used to
improve nuclear and radiation safety around the world."
Due to further downplaying of the health consequences by
organizations linked to the nuclear establishment and the fact
that the Chernobyl accident will fade away in the public debate
and the collective memory, it will be extremely diffi cult to raise
any public awareness on this matter in the future.
Let's make sure that past and future suffering due to Chernobyl
will not be in vain by making April 26 the international
'phase-out nuclear' day and increase our efforts to end the
nuclear age.
WISE/NIRS NUCLEAR MONITOR
The Nuclear Information & Resource Service was founded in 1978 and is based in
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The WISE/NIRS Nuclear Monitor publishes international information in English 20
times a year. A Spanish translation of this newsletter is available on the WISE Amsterdam
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WISE AMSTERDAM/NIRS
ISSN: 1570-4629
Editorial team: Dirk Bannink and Peer de Rijk
Text by: Dirk Bannink & Henk van der Keur, Laka
Foundation.
An extended version of the Chernobyl
Chronology is available at the website of Laka
Foundation: http://www.laka.org/chernobyl/
chronology.html
Next issue of the Nuclear Monitor (#725) will be
mailed out on March 18, 2011
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NUCLEAR MONITOR 724
