公開日: 2012/09/06
Osagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah's Legacy / The Founding Father of Ghana (21st September 1909 -- 27th April 1972) The legacy and history of the Late Great Osagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah. Ghana's first Prime Minister and first democratically elected President. He was born on September 21st,1909 in Nkroful, Ghana (then Gold Coast). Dr. Kwame Nkrumah was the leader of Ghana and its predecessor state, the Gold Coast, from 1951 to 1966. Overseeing the nation's independence from British colonial rule in 1957. The country became independent as part of the Commonwealth. He was hailed as the Osagyefo - which means "redeemer" in the Twi language. An influential 20th-century advocate of Pan-Africanism, who agitated for not only the independence of Ghana, but Africa as a whole. He was a founding member of the Organization of African Unity and was the winner of the Lenin Peace Prize in 1963. On February 24th,1966 he was overthrown by a military coup. He then fled to Conakry, Guinea where he soon developed skin cancer and flew to Romania where he died in April 1972.
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Ghana's History / The Gold Coast (Colonial Independence From
公開日: 2012/09/02
The Gold Coast / Republic of Ghana's History (1945-1966) Under the first Prime Minister and then President Osagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah. Ghana during the Colonial period and when it achieved independence in 1957. Then, leading up to Dr. Kwame Nkrumah's overthrow in 1966, which he was deposed by a military coup. Also, the history behind how the Akosombo Volta Dam was built.
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Ghana's History Part 2 / The Gold Coast (1966-2000)
公開日: 2012/09/10
Ghana's History Part 2 / The Gold Coast (1966-2000) The sequel to Ghana's History / The Gold Coast (Colonial Independence From Britain). This is primarily based on the years that followed after Dr. Nkrumah's overthrow, which were years of dictatorship and countless military coups. This documentary includes all the Presidents of Ghana and military dictators from military regimes that took over from where Dr. Kwame Nkrumah left off, which includes Lieutenant General Joseph Arthur Ankrah, Lieutenant General Emmanuel Kwasi Kotoka from the National Liberation Council. Also, Kofi Abrefa Busia, Ignatius Kutu Acheampong, Dr. Hilla Limann, and Jerry John Rawlings. J.J Rawlings ruled as a military dictator and then as an elected President until the year 2000.
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Ghana's History Part 3 / Republic of Ghana (2000-2008)
公開日: 2012/09/24
Ghana's History Part 3 / Republic of Ghana (2000-2008) In the year 2000, the people of the Republic of Ghana were ready for another general election. After 11 years of Jerry John Rawlings ruling as a military dictator and serving two terms in office as a democratically elected President, which was 8 years, it was time for a change of government. Rawlings had ruled from 1981 to the year 2000 spending almost 20 years in power. So a general election took place in December of 2000 with the New Patriotic Party (NPP) coming out on top with their flag bearer John Agyekum Kufour winning the election. John Agyekum Kufour was sworn in January 2001 and assumed office. President John Kufour brought stability, economic growth, and further development to the Republic of Ghana. Kufour was praised for massive infrastructure development, as well as attracting foreign investment. The improvement in agriculture was astonishing and there was a better management of our two main exports, gold and cocoa. He also changed the Ghana cedi currency, converting it into a new Ghana cedi which had the same value and equated with the old one, thus making transactions faster and easier. Kufour was also responsible for helping create the Golden Jubliee, which was established in 2007 when Ghana celebrated 50 years of independence from Britain (the United Kingdom). Just as Rawlings did, John Kufour served two terms in office and was getting ready to leave office in late 2008.
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History of Africa's Slave Trade (Obama's Visit to Ghana)
公開日: 2012/09/29
History of Africa's Slave Trade (Obama's Visit to Ghana) / The Ancient Empire of Ghana was heavily impacted by the first Europeans who made their way to Africa, which were the Portuguese in 1471. They came in pursuit of gold and this led to the start of the African slave trade, which the Europeans incorporated themselves in. The British fought for control over what was then known as the Guinea coast, which was the Ancient Empire of Ghana. The British successfully won control and renamed it the Gold Coast. The Ashanti kingdom was the last section to be incorporated in the British Gold Coast and brought under British rule. They were reluctant to give into British rule, and also to give away the ancient golden stool that the British were so desperately eager to acquire from them once they got to know of it. So one female warrior named Yaa Asantewaa was determined to defend the Ashanti kingdom and make sure that the golden stool would not get into the hands of the British colonial power. Nana Prempeh the first at the time had ascended the throne as the new Ashanti hene. In 1874, the Gold Coast became an official British colony. As a result of opposing colonial rule, both Yaa Asantewaa and Prempeh were sent to an island east of mainland Africa called Seychelles in exile. Yaa Asantewaa died in exile in 1921, but Nana Prempeh managed to survive and was allowed by the British to return to the Gold Coast which was in 1924, 3 years after Yaa Asantewaa's death. The slave trade in Africa made its way to North America where the African diaspora began. Slaves were working on plantations in the south and picking cotton. This led to Harriet Tubman's secret underground railroad discovery, which many slaves used as a way to escape from their slave masters. Slaves who were brought from Africa in ships were treated very horribly once they arrived in America, and even while they were on their way coming in the ships they were treated badly and living in deplorable conditions. Many were chained and shackled together. While in America over the years fighting for equal rights, it sparked the civil rights movement. This brought great civil rights leaders like Jesse Jackson, Malcolm X, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., among many others. Recently the first Black democratically President visited Ghana and also went to see Cape Coast castle, a place where many slaves were kept in order to be brought onto the ships which shipped them off. He chose Ghana as the first country to visit in Sub-Saharan Africa since becoming President, and of course Africa as a whole. Many saw him as acknowledging and realizing Ghana's political and economic stability over other countries in Africa. He even chose Ghana over his father's home country Kenya. It was then discovered that Ghana had become some sort of a pilgrimage for many African Americans who were and are interested in learning about the history of the slave trade.
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Dr. Kwame Nkrumah Speech on 6th march 1957 at the independence
公開日: 2013/05/16
Kwame Nkrumah (21 September 1909 -- 27 April 1972), was the leader of Ghana and its predecessor state, the Gold Coast, from 1951 to 1966. Overseeing the nation's independence from British colonial rule in 1957, Nkrumah was the first President of Ghana and the first Prime Minister of Ghana. An influential 20th-century advocate of Pan-Africanism, he was a founding member of the Organization of African Unity and was the winner of the Lenin Peace Prize in 1963. He saw himself as an African Lenin.
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Kwame Nkrumah - All-African People's Conference - 1958
アップロード日: 2010/01/15
This clip dates from December 1958, and is a newsreel of a gathering of the first All-African People's Conference (AAPC) held in Accra. Dr Kwame Nkrumah chaired the meeting, calling for the representatives of the attending countries to actively pursue independence from colonialism. The clip shows several delegates arriving, followed by part of Dr Nkrumah's speech.
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DOCUMENTARY: The 300 year old Asante Kingdom
公開日: 2013/09/28
DOCUMENTARY: The 300 year old Asante Kingdom
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President John F. Kennedy, Inaugural Address, 20 January 1961
公開日: 2013/11/24
In the long history of the world, only a few generations have been granted the role of defending freedom in its hour of maximum danger. I do not shrink from this responsibility -- I welcome it. I do not believe that any of us would exchange places with any other people or any other generation. The energy, the faith, the devotion which we bring to this endeavor will light our country and all who serve it. And the glow from that fire can truly light the world.
And so, my fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country.
And so, my fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country.
March 8, 1961 - President John F. Kennedy's Remarks of Welcome
公開日: 2013/08/06
President John F. Kennedy's Remarks of Welcome to President Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana at the Washington National Airport.
''I want to take this opportunity to welcome again to the United States, which he knows so well, the first citizen of Ghana, President Nkrumah.
Yesterday, in his speech at the United Nations, he quoted a common hero, I believe, Thomas Jefferson. Thomas Jefferson also once said, "The disease of liberty is catching."
It has been the object of our guest's life to make sure that that disease of liberty spreads around the globe. He has fought for it in his own country. He fights for it in Africa--he fights for it in the world.
We share the same basic aspiration for the United States as he works for his own country. We share the same basic aspiration for Africa that he wishes for--and for the world.
It is therefore a great honor and a great pleasure for me, as President of the United States, to welcome a distinguished citizen of a friendly country, and also a distinguished citizen of the world, the President of Ghana, President Nkrumah.''
The President greeted President Nkrumah at the Washington National Airport. President Nkrumah responded as follows:
''Mr. President:
As this is our first meeting since your assumption of responsibility as President of the United States, may I be permitted to offer you my personal and hearty congratulations and those of the Government and people of Ghana. We all look forward to a period of continued cooperation and understanding between our two countries.
I hope that our meeting today will strengthen our relations and contribute towards the establishment of lasting peace and stability in Africa and in the world.
These are troublous times. They are also times of opportunity for action. Let us, therefore, emphasize and consolidate the very many things that unite us, and from that starting point tackle the problems which confront us in our time. I am sure, Mr. President, that success will crown our efforts.
I thank you and the people of the United States for the warm welcome that has been accorded to me.''
''I want to take this opportunity to welcome again to the United States, which he knows so well, the first citizen of Ghana, President Nkrumah.
Yesterday, in his speech at the United Nations, he quoted a common hero, I believe, Thomas Jefferson. Thomas Jefferson also once said, "The disease of liberty is catching."
It has been the object of our guest's life to make sure that that disease of liberty spreads around the globe. He has fought for it in his own country. He fights for it in Africa--he fights for it in the world.
We share the same basic aspiration for the United States as he works for his own country. We share the same basic aspiration for Africa that he wishes for--and for the world.
It is therefore a great honor and a great pleasure for me, as President of the United States, to welcome a distinguished citizen of a friendly country, and also a distinguished citizen of the world, the President of Ghana, President Nkrumah.''
The President greeted President Nkrumah at the Washington National Airport. President Nkrumah responded as follows:
''Mr. President:
As this is our first meeting since your assumption of responsibility as President of the United States, may I be permitted to offer you my personal and hearty congratulations and those of the Government and people of Ghana. We all look forward to a period of continued cooperation and understanding between our two countries.
I hope that our meeting today will strengthen our relations and contribute towards the establishment of lasting peace and stability in Africa and in the world.
These are troublous times. They are also times of opportunity for action. Let us, therefore, emphasize and consolidate the very many things that unite us, and from that starting point tackle the problems which confront us in our time. I am sure, Mr. President, that success will crown our efforts.
I thank you and the people of the United States for the warm welcome that has been accorded to me.''
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President John F Kennedy and the African leaders
アップロード日: 2009/03/15
African leaders visit the White House.
President Kwame Nkrummah of Ghana.
President Habib Bourguiba of Tunesia.
President Felix Houphouet-Boigny of the Ivory Coast.
King Hassan II of Morocco.
Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia.
President Kwame Nkrummah of Ghana.
President Habib Bourguiba of Tunesia.
President Felix Houphouet-Boigny of the Ivory Coast.
King Hassan II of Morocco.
Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia.
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Kwame Nkrumah
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwame_Nkrumah
Kwame Nkrumah, P.C.[1] (21 September 1909 – 27 April 1972) was the leader of Ghana and its predecessor state, the Gold Coast, from 1951 to 1966. Overseeing the nation's independence from British colonization in 1957, Nkrumah was the first President of Ghana and the first Prime Minister of Ghana. An influential 20th-century advocate of Pan-Africanism, he was a founding member of the Organisation of African Unity and was the winner of the Lenin Peace Prize in 1963. He saw himself as an African Lenin.[2]
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クワメ・エンクルマ
http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AF%E3%83%AF%E3%83%A1%E3%83%BB%E3%82%A8%E3%83%B3%E3%82%AF%E3%83%AB%E3%83%9E
以下抜粋：
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クワメ・エンクルマ（Kwame Nkrumah、本名：Francis Nwia Kofia Nkrumah、1909年9月21日 - 1972年4月27日）は、政治家。ガーナ初代大統領。ガーナの独立運動を指揮し、アフリカの独立運動の父といわれる。マルクス主義者。日本語では姓がンクルマと表記される場合もある。エンクルマは語頭で「ン」を発音することができない英語での読み方。
前半生
エンクルマは1909年9月21日、イギリス領の植民地ゴールド・コーストの西部海岸にあるンクロフルにて[1]、アカン人のサブグループであるンズイマ人（ンゼマ人）の鍛冶屋の家に生まれる。ガーナ南部のアカン人のあいだでは生まれた曜日と性別によって自動的に名前が決まるため、土曜日に生まれた男児である彼にはクワメの名がつけられた[2]。1927年に首都アクラのアチモタ・スクールに入学し、1930年に卒業後[3]、エルミナのローマ・カトリックの小神学校の教師となり、1年後にはアクシムのカトリックの学校で教鞭をとり、さらに2年後には近郊のアミサノで神学校教師となった[4]。幼少より成績優秀だったため、1935年、親族に借金してセコンディ・タコラディ港からアメリカ合衆国に渡り、リンカーン大学に入学した。
1935年、イタリアのエチオピア侵攻を聞いて激怒し、植民地制度の打倒を志す。奨学金を取りながら苦学し、1942年、ペンシルベニア大学大学院にて教育学の修士号を、翌年には哲学の修士号を取得[5]。この間、アメリカやカナダに滞在するアフリカ人留学生の組織化につとめた。このころ、マーカス・ガーベイやC・L・R・ジェームズ、W・E・B・デュボイスの思想に影響を受け、パン・アフリカ主義の立場をとるようになった。1945年5月にはイギリスに渡り、ロンドンで西アフリカ学生同盟の副会長に就任[6]して、宗主国で優遇されるアフリカ出身のエリートの説得に奔走した。同年、マンチェスターで開かれた第五回パン・アフリカ会議ではのちに盟友となるジョージ・パドモアと共に書記を務めた。この会議にはエンクルマのほか、ケニアのジョモ・ケニヤッタ、マラウイのヘイスティングズ・カムズ・バンダ、ナイジェリアのオバフェミ・アウォロウォなどアフリカ大陸の独立指導者が多く参加し、これまでの欧米在住の黒人にかわってアフリカ大陸出身者がパンアフリカニズムの中心となるきっかけとなった。また、この時に国際会議事務局が設置され、エンクルマとパドモアが書記に、ケニヤッタが書記補に就任した[7]。 第二次世界大戦後、エンクルマの故国である英領ゴールドコーストでは自治権要求運動がさかんになった。そんな中、1947年に植民地エリートや伝統首長を中心に連合ゴールドコースト会議が結成されると、結成メンバーの一人でアメリカ時代のエンクルマの同志であった弁護士アコ=アジェイがエンクルマを招請し、同年12月エンクルマは帰国し、連合ゴールドコースト会議の事務局長に就任した。
1948年1月、おりからの物価高騰などにより不満を爆発させた市民が首都アクラでヨーロッパ商品の不買運動を始め、2月には暴動に発展した。この暴動は連合ゴールドコースト会議が起こしたものではなかったが、植民地当局は同党が煽動をおこなったとして、党の首脳部6人（エンクルマ、エマニュエル・オベツェビ＝ランプティ、J.B.ダンカ、エドワード・アクフォ＝アド、ウィリアム・オフォリ＝アタ、エベネゼル・アコ=アジェイ）の6人を逮捕した。しかしこれにより同党の人気はさらに高まった。
これに驚いた宗主国イギリスは調査団をゴールドコーストに派遣し、調査団は自治の拡大とアフリカ人主体の立法評議会の設置を提言した。この提言に対しもともと富裕層中心で穏健だった連合ゴールドコースト会議は賛成したが、エンクルマは即時自治の要求を掲げて党首脳部と対立し、1949年にはエンクルマは脱党して新党である会議人民党を結成し、ストライキやボイコットといった強硬な政策を中心とした「ポジティブ・アクション」を打ち出した。これにより会議人民党は下層住民の支持を受け、党勢は急速に拡大。1950年1月には即時自治を求めてデモを行い、デモ隊と警官隊が衝突した。この責任を問われ逮捕されるが、調査団の提言を元に制定された1951年憲法のもとでおこなわれた1951年2月の選挙で改選38議席中34議席を占める大勝利で会議人民党は第一党となり、獄中から立候補していたエンクルマも当選し、釈放された。会議人民党が議会の多数を占めたため、チャールズ・アーデン・クラーク総督はエンクルマに組閣を命じ、エンクルマは政府事務主席の座に就いた。
政府事務主席の座に就くと、エンクルマは交渉による平和的な方法でのイギリスからの独立に方針を転換した。1952年には政府事務主席を首相と改称し、初代英領ゴールド・コースト首相となる。1954年には新憲法を制定して国内の自治をイギリスに認めさせ、同年新憲法下でおこなわれた選挙においても会議人民党は104議席中72議席を獲得して圧勝。独立はこれによりほぼ規定路線となった。
しかし、中央集権的な政権を目指すエンクルマに対し、旧来の大王国を持ち経済的にもゴールドコーストで最も豊かなアシャンティ地方が反発。暴動が勃発し、英国政府は独立の前に総選挙をおこなって民意を確定することを求めた。1956年に行われた選挙で、ダンカやコフィ・ブシアが率いる旧アシャンティ王国を地盤とする国民解放運動はアシャンティ以外で議席を伸ばせず、会議人民党政権は信任を受けた形となった。同年、国連信託統治領トーゴランドの帰属を確認する住民投票が行われ、北部ではゴールドコーストへの統合、エウェ人の多い南部ではフランス領トーゴとの統合を求める票が多かったが、全体としてはゴールドコーストとの統合票が過半数となり、国連信託統治領トーゴランドは英領ゴールドコーストへと統合された[8]。
そして、1957年にゴールドコーストは英領トーゴランドと共にイギリスより英連邦王国内の立憲君主国として独立、国号を西アフリカ最初の大王国であったガーナ王国にちなんでガーナと名づけ、エンクルマは初代ガーナ共和国首相に就任した。
独立運動
第二次世界大戦後、エンクルマの故国である英領ゴールドコーストでは自治権要求運動がさかんになった。そんな中、1947年に植民地エリートや伝統首長を中心に連合ゴールドコースト会議が結成されると、結成メンバーの一人でアメリカ時代のエンクルマの同志であった弁護士アコ=アジェイがエンクルマを招請し、同年12月エンクルマは帰国し、連合ゴールドコースト会議の事務局長に就任した。
1948年1月、おりからの物価高騰などにより不満を爆発させた市民が首都アクラでヨーロッパ商品の不買運動を始め、2月には暴動に発展した。この暴動は連合ゴールドコースト会議が起こしたものではなかったが、植民地当局は同党が煽動をおこなったとして、党の首脳部6人（エンクルマ、エマニュエル・オベツェビ＝ランプティ、J.B.ダンカ、エドワード・アクフォ＝アド、ウィリアム・オフォリ＝アタ、エベネゼル・アコ=アジェイ）の6人を逮捕した。しかしこれにより同党の人気はさらに高まった。
これに驚いた宗主国イギリスは調査団をゴールドコーストに派遣し、調査団は自治の拡大とアフリカ人主体の立法評議会の設置を提言した。この提言に対しもともと富裕層中心で穏健だった連合ゴールドコースト会議は賛成したが、エンクルマは即時自治の要求を掲げて党首脳部と対立し、1949年にはエンクルマは脱党して新党である会議人民党を結成し、ストライキやボイコットといった強硬な政策を中心とした「ポジティブ・アクション」を打ち出した。これにより会議人民党は下層住民の支持を受け、党勢は急速に拡大。1950年1月には即時自治を求めてデモを行い、デモ隊と警官隊が衝突した。この責任を問われ逮捕されるが、調査団の提言を元に制定された1951年憲法のもとでおこなわれた1951年2月の選挙で改選38議席中34議席を占める大勝利で会議人民党は第一党となり、獄中から立候補していたエンクルマも当選し、釈放された。会議人民党が議会の多数を占めたため、チャールズ・アーデン・クラーク総督はエンクルマに組閣を命じ、エンクルマは政府事務主席の座に就いた。
政府事務主席の座に就くと、エンクルマは交渉による平和的な方法でのイギリスからの独立に方針を転換した。1952年には政府事務主席を首相と改称し、初代英領ゴールド・コースト首相となる。1954年には新憲法を制定して国内の自治をイギリスに認めさせ、同年新憲法下でおこなわれた選挙においても会議人民党は104議席中72議席を獲得して圧勝。独立はこれによりほぼ規定路線となった。
しかし、中央集権的な政権を目指すエンクルマに対し、旧来の大王国を持ち経済的にもゴールドコーストで最も豊かなアシャンティ地方が反発。暴動が勃発し、英国政府は独立の前に総選挙をおこなって民意を確定することを求めた。1956年に行われた選挙で、ダンカやコフィ・ブシアが率いる旧アシャンティ王国を地盤とする国民解放運動はアシャンティ以外で議席を伸ばせず、会議人民党政権は信任を受けた形となった。同年、国連信託統治領トーゴランドの帰属を確認する住民投票が行われ、北部ではゴールドコーストへの統合、エウェ人の多い南部ではフランス領トーゴとの統合を求める票が多かったが、全体としてはゴールドコーストとの統合票が過半数となり、国連信託統治領トーゴランドは英領ゴールドコーストへと統合された[8]。
そして、1957年にゴールドコーストは英領トーゴランドと共にイギリスより英連邦王国内の立憲君主国として独立、国号を西アフリカ最初の大王国であったガーナ王国にちなんでガーナと名づけ、エンクルマは初代ガーナ共和国首相に就任した。
独立後
外交
エンクルマは政権の座に就くと、何よりもまずパン・アフリカ主義のもとアフリカ諸国の独立支援と国家間の連帯に力を入れた。まず同志であるパドモアをガーナへと招聘し、外交政策におけるブレーンとした。パドモアは1959年に死去するまでガーナにとどまった。1958年4月にはアパルトヘイト体制下にあった白人国家南アフリカ連邦を除く当時のアフリカの全独立国家8カ国（エジプト、リビア、チュニジア、モロッコ、スーダン、エチオピア、リベリア、ガーナ）の首脳をアクラに招き、アフリカ独立諸国会議（CIAS)を開催した[9]。1958年10月にギニアがフランスと対立して独立した際には借款を与えて支援を行った[10]。同じくパン・アフリカ主義を唱えるギニアの指導者セク・トゥーレとは協力関係を深め、11月にアフリカ合衆連合、（1958年–1962年）を結成して統合の度を深めた。さらに1958年12月、未独立地域も含めたアフリカ各地の指導者を首都アクラに集め、パドモアと共に全アフリカ人民会議（AAPC)を開催し[11]、パトリス・ルムンバらに大きな影響を与えた。またアフリカを統一国家とするアフリカ合衆国の構想も謳われた。しかし、1960年1月チュニジアで開かれた第二回会議では、独立要求こそ謳われたが、アフリカ統一に関する議論はほとんど行なわれなかった。
1960年のアフリカの年を皮切りに、アフリカには多くの新独立国が誕生したが、アフリカ統一をめぐって大きく2つのグループに分かれるようになった。ガーナやギニア、マリ、モロッコといったアフリカ統一と社会主義を基本とするグループは、1961年1月に独立戦争中のアルジェリアを含めカサブランカ-アフリカ憲章を採択し、カサブランカ・グループを形成。緩やかな統合と欧米との友好を基本とする、リベリアや、コートジボワールをはじめとする旧フランス植民地のほとんど、ナイジェリアといったモンロビア・グループと対立した。マリ連邦崩壊後、やはりパンアフリカニストのモディボ・ケイタ率いるマリ共和国と、ガーナ・ギニアは関係を深め、1961年4月にはアフリカ合衆連合にマリが加盟する。しかし新独立国家群の大半は欧米との友好関係を重視するモンロビア・グループに属した。1961年のコンゴ動乱では、パトリス・ルムンバを支援するカサブランカ・グループと欧米よりの姿勢をとるモンロビア・グループの間で対立が激化した。しかしやがてエチオピアのハイレ・セラシエ1世の介入で和解、1963年にはアジスアベバで折衝案を盛り込んだアフリカ統一機構（OAU）が設立された[12]。政治的統一は排除されたが、アフリカ諸国の相互援助は謳われた。
1961年にはW・E・B・デュボイスをガーナに招き、エンサイクロペディア・アフリカーナの編纂を依頼した[13]。デュボイスはガーナへと帰化し、1963年に亡くなるまでガーナに住んだ。また、非同盟主義をかかげるインドのジャワハルラール・ネルーやユーゴスラビアのチトーとも協力関係をとり、1961年9月にベオグラードで開かれた第一回非同盟諸国首脳会議にも参加して非同盟主義の主唱者のひとりとなった。1962年には、共産主義者としてソヴィエト連邦よりレーニン平和賞が贈られている。1965年10月21日にはアフリカ統一機構の第3代議長に就任したが、クーデター（後述）によって1966年2月24日にその職を離れた。
このようにエンクルマは植民地支配を受ける地域や独立間もない国家への支援を積極的に行ったが、これは内政の停滞を招き、結果的にゴールドコースト時代、アフリカで最も先進的だったガーナの財政を傾ける原因の一つとなった。
内政
内政においては中央集権を進め、各地の伝統首長や地方勢力と対立した。地方勢力や伝統首長層を制肘するため、1957年に独立するとすぐに差別廃止法が制定され、人種、出身、宗教を基盤とする政党は結成を禁止された[14]。これは、エンクルマの与党である会議人民党が全国的な組織を持つのに対し、主要野党である国民解放運動は旧アシャンティ王国を基盤とし、トーゴランド会議が旧トーゴランド国連信託統治領のエウェ人を、北部人民党が北部の首長層を、ムスリム協会党がイスラム教徒を基盤としたため、与党にとって有利な法律であった。また、伝統首長に就任するには会議人民党の承認が必要になり、さらに伝統首長のポストはこの時代に大増設され、会議人民党に従順なもののみが就任を許された。これによりかつてゴールドコースト政界の主導権を握っていた伝統首長層の政治力は大幅に削減された。さらにカカオの栽培と金の産出によって国内で最も富み、王国の歴史があって独立心が強く、反エンクルマの傾向の強い有力州アシャンティ州については、アシャンティ人に従属していた州北部のブロン人とアハホ人を説得し、1958年にブロング＝アハフォ州として独立させることで州の力を削いだ[15]。
これに対し、野党は団結して統一党を結成し、ダンカとブシアを指導者としてエンクルマに対抗したが、エンクルマは1958年に予防拘禁法を国会で通過させた。これは裁判無しでの投獄を可能とするもので、これによって統一党の主導者層は軒並み逮捕され、のちにダンカは獄死、ブシアはイギリスへの亡命を余儀なくされた。これによって対抗者を権力で抑圧し、エンクルマ政権は独裁化の道を歩み始める。1960年7月には共和制を採用し、エンクルマは初代大統領に就任した。こののちも独裁化は止まらず、1961年には物価の高騰や賃金への不満によってデモを起こした工場労働者たちを逮捕し、デモを禁止してしまった。政権を取るまではデモ戦術を多用し利用したエンクルマが、政権を奪取した後に一転してそれを弾圧したことは、支持者の間に深刻な不満を募らせることとなった[16]。1962年の8月と9月にはエンクルマの暗殺未遂が起こっている。これによって不安を感じたエンクルマは、軍とは別個の組織として大統領警護隊を組織したが、これは第2の軍の成立に不満を持った正規軍との間に不和を生じさせる原因となった[17]。このころには大統領官邸は鉄条網に囲まれた上に厳重な警戒にもとに置かれるようになっていた[18]。さらにエンクルマは個人崇拝を強制するようになり、また暗殺を恐れて会議などでは必ず壁を背にして座るようになった[19]。1964年1月にはついに野党を禁止し、ガーナは一党独裁制国家となった。
経済
エンクルマは独立と同時に、後にアフリカ系初のノーベル経済学賞受賞者となるアーサー・ルイスを招聘し経済顧問とした。しかし、独立小農の育成支援による農業革命を目指すルイスと都市と工業化を重視するエンクルマとは意見が合わず、翌1958年にはルイスはガーナを去り[20]、以後経済政策においてエンクルマを制肘できる者はいなくなった。
エンクルマ政権の経済政策は、巨大プロジェクトの推進や機械化された大規模集団農場の設立、政府系企業の設立などを中心とした国家主導型の開発政策をとった。ヴォルタ川に巨大なアコソンボダムで世界最大の人造湖ヴォルタ湖をつくり、その電力によってテマに建設されたアルミニウム精錬工場などのコンビナートを稼動させ外貨を得るという計画は、1962年1月に着工し、1966年に建設及び稼動には成功したものの予想を下回る成果しか得られなかったが、この計画はエンクルマ政権のプロジェクトの中で最も成功した部類に入る。工業化を目指して設立された政府系企業は機能せず、会議人民党に近い人々が利権を貪る場となった。これは、ガーナには自立した独立小農は多かったものの、企業家層および技術者が絶対的に不足しており、工業化を推進する条件が整っていなかったことによる。集団農場政策も失敗に終わった。カカオはもともと小規模農家でも充分に採算が取れる作物であり、集団化させる必然性に乏しい。そのうえ国営農場は非常に非効率であり、機械化に要した費用も経済の重荷となった。
一方、独立前のゴールドコースト経済を支えていた独立小農に対しては、ほとんど支援を与えず、逆に彼らの犠牲の元で経済成長を進める方針を採った。この方針を可能にしたのが、1947年に設立されたカカオ・マーケティング・ボード（カカオ流通公社）である。この機構はゴールドコーストで生産されたカカオをすべて買い取り輸出するために設けられたものであり、本来はそれによってカカオの価格変動を抑え安定した収入をカカオ農家にもたらすためのものであった。しかし、エンクルマは政権の座に就くとこのカカオ買取価格を低く抑え、差額を国家の収入として積極的に活用し始めた[21]。すでに独立以前、1954年にはカカオの生産者価格を凍結する法案を植民地議会に提出し、可決させている。これはカカオの主要生産者であったアシャンティ人の態度を硬化させることにもつながり、1956年の選挙において価格引き上げがブシアやダンカの選挙スローガンともなったが、他地方の票によってこの主張は敗れ去ってしまった[22]。このことは、ガーナ経済の最大の強みであった意欲ある独立小農の意欲を大幅に減退させた。集団農場の失敗と独立小農の失望によりカカオの生産高は減少し、それとともにガーナ経済も衰退していった。外貨準備は1957年に2億イギリス・ポンドあり、負債は2000万ポンドに過ぎなかったが、1965年には外貨準備は0に、負債は4億イギリス・ポンドに達した[23]。この経済混乱はエンクルマ失脚後にも尾を引き、1960年から1979年までのガーナ経済の年平均経済成長率は-0.8%となり、独立直後と比べて大幅に経済が縮小した。[24]
こうした動きによって欧米諸国のガーナへの援助が滞るようになると、エンクルマはもともとのアフリカ社会主義思想をさらに急進化させ、ソヴィエト連邦や中華人民共和国といった社会主義国に接近するようになった。しかしこの動きはアメリカやヨーロッパ諸国をさらに硬化させることにつながった。
その他
軍事においては、ゴールドコースト植民地軍であった王立西アフリカ前線軍を引き継いでガーナ軍を設立し、1958年に国家安全保障委員会を設立して軍を積極的に拡張した。軍内においてはほかの公務員と同じく急速なアフリカ人化を進め、独立前の1956年には将校団212名中イギリス人が184名、ガーナ人が28名であったのが、1961年にはすべてのイギリス人将校が解雇され、将校団はすべてガーナ人に置き換えられた。エンクルマ政権の独裁化にともない軍は大きな力を持つようになったが、上記のように暗殺未遂が多発する中でエンクルマは大統領警護隊の設置と拡張に踏み切るとともに軍内の粛清を始めたため、軍内の反エンクルマ勢力が急速に力をつけ、1966年のクーデターにつながることとなった[25]。
教育においては、クマシにおかれていたクマシ工科カレッジを改組し、1961年8月22日にクマシにてクワメ・エンクルマ科学技術大学を開校した。
通貨においては、独立以前の西アフリカ・ポンドを1958年に独自通貨であるガーナ・ポンドへと変更した。その後、1965年には十進法化を目的として再び通貨改革を行い、新通貨セディが導入された。
失脚と死
1966年2月24日、北京とハノイへ外遊中に、CIAに支援[26][27][28]されたエマヌエル・コトカ大佐とアクワシ・アフリファ少佐による軍事クーデターが起こり、エンクルマは失脚し、政治的に近かったセク・トゥーレ率いるギニアへの亡命を余儀なくされた。ギニアでは賓客として遇され、回顧録の執筆や薔薇の栽培などをして過ごした。そして亡命から6年後の1972年4月27日、療養のため訪れたルーマニアのブカレストで癌により病死した。[29]遺体は出生地であるンクロフルに埋葬するためガーナへと送り返され、当時の国家元首であるイグナティウス・アチャンポンほか2万人が葬儀に参列した。[30]
エンクルマ失脚後、1969年には選挙と民政移管が行われ、エンクルマの政敵であったコフィ・ブシアが大統領となったが、このときの選挙ではエンクルマの与党であった会議人民党の要職にいたものは選挙資格を剥奪されていた。1972年にはブシア政権も倒れ、軍事政権が幾度か交代した後、1979年にジェリー・ローリングスのクーデターによって再び民政移管が行われ、エンクルマ派の人民国家党のヒラ・リマンが大統領となったが、失政を重ねて1981年にローリングスが再びクーデターを起こして軍事政権となった。ローリングス時代にエンクルマ派は分裂を重ねて弱体化し、再び民主化された1996年の選挙においては全派あわせて6議席しかとれず、新愛国党と国民民主会議の二大政党制が定着する中でエンクルマ派は埋没していった。
21世紀に入った現在、ガーナ国内におけるエンクルマの評価は2つに分かれている。ガーナ独立の英雄として、建国の父として若い世代中心に人気が高い一方、エンクルマ時代を経験した世代には経済の混乱や独裁政治によってあまりいいイメージをもっていないものも多い。
エンクルマの墓は出生地である沿岸部のンクロフル村にあるが、遺骨は首都アクラへと移され、アクラ中心部に巨大なクワメ・エンクルマ廟が建設されてそこに安置されている。
ガーナの独自通貨として1965年にセディが導入された時には、すべての硬貨と最高額の1000セディ札を除くすべての紙幣にエンクルマの肖像が使用されていたが、1967年に発行された紙幣では失脚に伴いすべてデザインから排除された。その後、1998年に10000セディ札が発行されると、ガーナ独立の6偉人（ビッグ・シックス。エンクルマ、エマニュエル・オベツェビ＝ランプティ、J.B.ダンカ、エドワード・アクフォ＝アド、ウィリアム・オフォリ＝アタ、エベネゼル・アコ=アジェイ）の一人として、集合像の中で復活した。2007年にセディのデノミが行われると、すべての紙幣（1,5,10,20,50）セディ紙幣に6偉人像が使用された。さらに2010年、新しく発行された2セディ紙幣には単独の肖像が使用されることとなった。
最終更新 2014年1月28日 (火)
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Ghana
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana
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Ghana (
i/ˈɡɑːnə/), officially called the Republic of Ghana, is a sovereign state and unitary presidential constitutional republic, located along the Gulf of Guinea and Atlantic Ocean, in West Africa. In 1957, Ghana became the first nation to declare independence from colonization in sub-saharan Africa.[citation needed]The country is bordered by the Ivory Coast in the west, Burkina Faso in the north, Togo in the east and the Gulf of Guinea and Atlantic Ocean in the south. The word Ghana means "Warrior King".[7]
Ghana has a 238,535 km2 land mass with 2,093 kilometres of international land borders. Ghana consists of ten administrative regions and some islands, parts of which are endowed with savannas, woodlands, forests, a coastal line, fertile lands, springs, waterfalls, streams, rivers, caves, lakes, esturaries, mountains, wildlife parks and nature reserves, industrial minerals, Precious metals and Fossil fuel.[8][9][10] The coast of Ghana which has mainly sandy beaches stretches 560 kilometres (350 miles) with a peninsula at Cape Three Points. Also along the coastline are castles, forts, ports and harbours.[10] These physical and human features are not evenly spread in the country however.
Ghana has in recent years attained rapid economic growth and rising human development.[11] Ghana is a petroleum and natural gas producer, one of the world's largest gold and diamond producers, the second largest cocoa producer in the world,[12] and Ghana is home to Lake Volta, the largest artificial lake in the world by surface area.[13] Ghana is a regional power and has regional hegemony;[14] and it is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement and a member of both the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the Group of 24 (G24).[15]
Name and etymology
The word Ghana means "Warrior King" and was the title accorded to the kings of the medieval Ghana Empire in West Africa, although this empire was further north than the modern-day country of Ghana in Guinea region.[16]
The name "Ghana" was the source of the name "Guinea" (via French Guinoye) used to refer to the West African coast off Ghana (as in Gulf of Guinea).[17]
Ghana was adopted as the legal name for the area comprising four separate parts which immediately before independence enjoyed distinct constitutional positions:[18]
the Colony of the Gold Coast;
the Colony of Ashanti;
the Protectorate of the Northern Territories; and the Trust Territory of Togoland (under British administration).
The minister responsible for shepherding through the independence legislation Charles Arden-Clarke Lord Listowel explained that the name was chosen "in accordance with local wishes".[19]
History
Ghana was inhabited in the Middle Ages and the age of discovery by a number of ancient predominantly Akan kingdoms, including the Ashanti Empire, the Akwamu, the Bonoman, the Denkyira, and the Mankessim Kingdom. There is archaeological evidence showing that humans have lived in present-day Ghana since the Bronze Age.[20] However, until the 11th century, the majority of modern Ghana's territorial area was largely unoccupied and uninhabited by humans.[21] Although the area of present-day Ghana in West Africa has experienced many population movements, the Akans were firmly settled by the 10th century.[22] By the early 11th century, the Akans were firmly established in the Akan state called Bonoman, for which the Brong-Ahafo region is named.[22][23]
From the 13th century, Akans emerged from what is believed to have been the Bonoman area, to create several Akan states of Ghana, mainly based on gold trading. These states included Bonoman (Brong-Ahafo region), Ashanti (Ashanti region), Denkyira (Central region), Mankessim Kingdom (Western region), and Akwamu (Eastern region and Greater Accra region).[22] By the 19th century; the territory of the southern part of Ghana was included in the Kingdom of Ashanti, one of the most influential states in sub-saharan Africa prior to the onset of colonialism.[22] The Kingdom of Ashanti government operated first as a loose network, and eventually as a centralised kingdom with an advanced, highly specialised bureaucracy centred in the capital city of Kumasi.[22] It is said that at its peak; the King of the Empire of Ashanti, Asantehene could field 500,000 troops, and it had strong degree of military influence over all of its neighbours within West Africa.[24][25] Prior to Akan contact with Europeans, trade between the Akan and various West African states flourished due to Akan gold wealth. Trade with European states began after contact with Portuguese in the 15th century. Early European contact by the Portuguese people, who came to the Gold Coast region in the 15th century to trade then established the Portuguese Gold Coast (Costa do Ouro), focused on the extensive availability of gold.[26] The Portuguese first landed at a south coastal city, and named the place Elmina as the Portuguese Gold Coast's capital city.[26] In 1481, King John II of Portugal commissioned Diogo d'Azambuja to build Elmina Castle, which was completed in three years.[26] By 1598, the Dutch people had joined the Portuguese people in gold trading, establishing the Dutch Gold Coast (Nederlandse Bezittingen ter Kuste van Guinea) and building forts at Komeda and Kormantsi.[27] In 1617, the Dutch captured the Olnini Castle from the Portuguese, and Axim in 1642 (Fort St Anthony). Other European traders had joined in gold trading by the mid-17th century, most notably the Swedish people, establishing the Swedish Gold Coast (Svenska Guldkusten), and the Danish people, establishing the Danish Gold Coast (Danske Guldkyst or Dansk Guinea). Portuguese merchants, impressed with the gold resources in the area, named it Costa do Ouro or Gold Coast.[28]
More than thirty forts and castles were built by the Portuguese, Swedish, Danish, Dutch and German merchants; the latter German people establishing the German Gold Coast (Brandenburger Gold Coast or Groß Friedrichsburg).[29] In 1874 England established control over some parts of the country assigning these areas the status of British Gold Coast.[30] Many military engagements occurred between the British colonial powers and the various Akan nation-states and the Akan Kingdom of Ashanti defeated the British a few times in a warfare against the United Kingdom that lasted for 100 years, but eventually lost with the War of the Golden Stool in the early 1900s.[31][32][32][33] In 1947, the newly formed United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) by The Big Six called for "self-government within the shortest possible time".[28][34] Dr.h.c. Kwame Nkrumah is the first Prime Minister of Ghana and President of Ghana and formed the Convention People's Party (CPP) with the motto "self-government now".[28] The coastal Gold Coast region declared independence from the United Kingdom in 1957 and established the nation of Ghana. This made it the first African country to gain independence from colonization.[35][36][37]
Within West Africa until the establishment of Ghana in March 1957, the territory of modern Ghana, excluding the Volta Region (British Togoland), was known as the Gold Coast region.[28] On 6 March 1957 at 12 a.m Kwame Nkrumah declared Ghana's establishment and autonomy as the first Prime Minister of Ghana and on 1 July 1960, Nkrumah declared Ghana as a republic as the first President of Ghana.[28] The flag of Ghana, consisting of the colours red, gold, green, and the black star, became the new flag in 1957. Designed by Theodosia Salome Okoh, the red represents the blood that was shed towards independence, the gold represents the industrial minerals wealth of Ghana, the green symbolises the rich grasslands of Ghana, and the black star is the symbol of the Ghanaian people and African emancipation.[38]
The first Prime Minister of Ghana and President of Ghana Osagyefo Kwame Nkrumah won a majority in the Gold Coast Legislative Assembly in 1952, Nkrumah was appointed leader of the Gold Coast's government business.[28] Kwame Nkrumah, first Prime Minister of Ghana, and then President of Ghana, was the first African head of state to promote Pan-Africanism, an idea he came into contact with during his studies at Lincoln University, Pennsylvania in the United States, at the time when Marcus Garvey was becoming famous for his "Back to Africa Movement". Nkrumah merged the teachings of Marcus Garvey, Martin Luther King, Jr. and the naturalized Ghanaian scholar W. E. B. Du Bois into the formation of 1960s Ghana.[28]
Osagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, as he became known, played an instrumental part in the founding of the Non-Aligned Movement and his life achievements were recognised by Ghanaians during his centenary birthday celebration, and the day was instituted as a public holiday. Dr. Kwame Nkrumah's government was subsequently overthrown by a military coup while he was abroad with Zhou Enlai in the People's Republic of China in February 1966.
A series of alternating military and civilian governments from 1966 to 1981 ended with the ascension to power of Flight Lieutenant Jerry John Rawlings of the Provisional National Defense Council (NDC) in 1981.[39] These changes resulted in the suspension of the constitution in 1981, and the banning of political parties.[40] The economy suffered a severe decline soon after, Kwame Darko negotiated a structural adjustment plan changing many old economic policies, and economic growth soon recovered from the mid-2000s.[40] A new constitution restoring multi-party politics was promulgated in 1992; Rawlings was elected as president then, and again in 1996.[41] Winning the 2000 elections, John Agyekum Kufuor of the New Patriotic Party (NPP) was sworn into office as president in January 2001, and attained the presidency again in 2004, thus also serving two terms as president and thus marking the first time that power had been transferred to one legitimately elected head of state and head of government to another, and securing Ghana's status as a stable democracy.[41]
Government
Ghana is a unitary presidential constitutional republic with a parliamentary multi-party system and former alternating military occupation. Following alternating military and civilian governments in January 1993, the Ghana military government gave way to the Fourth Republic of Ghana after presidential and parliamentary elections in late 1992. The 1992 constitution divides powers among a president, parliament, cabinet, council of state, and an independent judiciary. The government is elected by universal suffrage.[42] The Electoral Commission of Ghana announced that fomer Vice-President of Ghana, John Dramani Mahama won the Ghana presidential election, 2012 on 7 December 2012 and John Dramani Mahama was sworn in as the reigning President of Ghana on 7 January 2013 serving a 4-years term length that expires approximately on Saturday 7 January 2017 amidst announcement of electoral fraud.[43]
The 2012 Failed States Index indicated that Ghana is ranked the 67th least failed state in the world and the 5th least failed state in Africa after Mauritius, 2nd Seychelles, 3rd Botswana, and 4th South Africa. Ghana ranked 112th out of 177 countries on the index.[44] Ghana ranked as the 64th least corrupt and politically corrupt country in the world out of all 174 countries ranked and Ghana ranked as the 5th least corrupt and politically corrupt country in Africa out of 53 countries in the 2012 Transparency International Corruption Perception Index.[45][46] Ghana was ranked 7th in Africa out of 53 countries in the 2012 Ibrahim Index of African Governance. The Ibrahim Index is a comprehensive measure of African government, based on a number of different variables which reflect the success with which governments deliver essential political goods to its citizens.[47]
GeographyGhana is located on the Gulf of Guinea, only a few degrees north of the Equator, therefore giving it a warm climate.[48] Ghana spans an area of 238,535 km2 (92,099 sq mi), and has an Atlantic coastline that stretches 560 kilometres (350 miles) on the Gulf of Guinea in Atlantic Ocean to its south.[48] lies between latitudes 4° and 12°N, and longitudes 4°W and 2°E; and the Prime Meridian passes through Ghana, specifically through the industrial port town of Tema.[48] Ghana is geographically closer to the "centre" of the world than any other country in the world; even though the notional centre, (0°, 0°) is located in the Atlantic Ocean approximately 614 km (382 mi) off the south-east coast of Ghana on the Gulf of Guinea.[49] Grasslands mixed with south coastal shrublands and forests dominate Ghana, with forest extending northward from the south-west coast of Ghana on the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean 320 kilometers (200 miles) and eastward for a maximum of about 270 kilometers (170 miles) with the Kingdom of Ashanti or the southern part of Ghana being a primary location for mining of industrial minerals and timber.[48] Ghana encompasses plains, low hills, rivers, Lake Volta, the world's largest artificial lake, Dodi Island and Bobowasi Island on the south Atlantic Ocean coast of Ghana.[50] The northernmost part of Ghana is Pulmakong and the southernmost part of Ghana is Cape three points.[48]
Law enforcement and police
The Ghana Police Service (GPS) is the main law enforcement agency of the Republic of Ghana and responsible for the detection of crime, maintenance of law and order and the maintenance of internal peace and security.[53] The Ghana Police Service has eleven specialized police units including a Rapid Deployment Force (RDF) and Marine Police Unit (MPU).[54][55] The Ghana Police Service operates in twelve divisions: ten covering the ten regions of Ghana, one assigned specifically to the seaport and industrial hub of Tema, and the twelfth being the Railways, Ports and Harbours Division.[55] The Ghana Police Service's Marine Police Unit and Division handles issues that arise from the country's offshore oil and gas industry.[55]
The Ghana Prisons Service and the sub-division Borstal Institute for Juveniles administers incarceration in Ghana.[56] Ghana retains and exercises the death penalty for treason, corruption, robbery, piracy, drug trafficking, rape, and homicide.[57][58] 27 convicts (all men) were sentenced to death in Ghana in 2012 and the Ghana Prisons Service statistics of the total number of convicts sentenced to death in Ghana as at December 2012 was 162 men and 4 women,[57] with a total prison inmate population of 13,983 convicts as at 22 July 2013.[59]
Economy
Ghana is a relatively wealthy natural resource rich country possessing a great abundance of industrial minerals, hydrocarbons and other vast array of natural resources and is an emerging designated digital economy with mixed economy hybridization and an emerging market with 8.7% GDP growth in 2012 and an economic plan target known as the "Ghana Vision 2020" that will see Ghana become the first country on the Africa continent to become a developed country from the years 2020 to 2029 followed by a newly industrialised country from the years 2030 to 2039 onwards excluding fellow Group of 24 (G24) member and Sub-Saharan African country South Africa which is a newly industrialised country,[60] and the economy of Ghana is tied to the Chinese Yuan Renminbi along with Ghana's vast gold reserves and in 2013 the Bank of Ghana (BoG) began circulating the Renminbi throughout Ghanaian state-owned banks and to the Ghana public as hard currency along with the national Ghana cedi for second national trade currency.[61]
Ghana, a wealthy country with vast natural resources has a current Middle Income country rank and is an Emerging Economy.[5][62] Services account for 50% of Ghanaian gross domestic product, followed by manufacturing (24.1%), extractive industries (5%), and taxes (20.9%).[63]
The Ghana economy is an emerging digital-based mixed economy hybrid modelled towards that of Taiwan with an increasing primary manufacturing and exportation of digital technology goods along with assembling and exporting automobiles and ships, diverse resource rich exportations of industrial minerals, agricultural products primarily cocoa, petroleum and natural gas,[64] and industries such as information and communications technology primarily via Ghana's state digital technology corporation Rlg Communications which manufactures tablet computers with smart phones and various electronics, electricity generation primarily via Ghana's state-owned hydropower company Volta River Authority and state-owned hydrocarbon corporation Ghana National Petroleum Corporation.[63][65] The Akosombo Dam, which was built on the Volta River in 1965, Bui Dam, Kpong Dam with several other hydroelectric dams and renewable energy sources provides hydro-electricity and sustainable energy for Ghana.[66][67][68] Known for its industrial minerals, Ghana was the world's 7th largest producer of gold in 2012; producing 102 metric tons of gold and the 10th largest producer of gold in the world in 2012; producing 89 metric tons of gold and Ghana is the designated 2nd largest producer of gold on the Africa continent behind the designated first South Africa.[69] Ghana has the 9th largest reserves of diamonds in the world and Ghana is the 9th largest producer of diamonds in the world with Brazil having the 10th largest reserves of diamonds in the world and being the 10th largest producer of diamonds in the world.[70] The Parliament of Ghana has drawn plans to nationalize Ghana's entire mining industry for greater revenues for Ghana.[71][72][73] Ghana is the designated 2nd largest producer of cocoa in the world,[12][74] and other hydrocarbon exports such as crude oil and natural gas.[75] The 100% state-owned filling station company of Ghana, Ghana Oil Company (GOIL) is the number 1 petroleum and gas filling station of Ghana and the 100% state-owned state oil company Ghana National Petroleum Corporation (GNPC) administrates hydrocarbon exploration and production of Ghana's entire petroleum and natural gas reserves and Ghana aims to further increase output of oil to 2.2 million barrels per day and gas to 1.2 billion cubic feet per day.[76] Ghana's Jubilee Oilfield which contains up to 3 billion barrels (480,000,000 m3) of sweet crude oil was discovered in 2007, among the many other offshore and inland oilfields in Ghana.[77] Ghana is believed to have up to 5 billion barrels (790,000,000 m3) to 7 billion barrels (1.1×109 m3) of petroleum in reserves,[78] which is the sixth largest in Africa and the 25th largest proven reserves in the world and Ghana has up to 6 trillion cubic feet of natural gas in reserves.[79] Oil and gas exploration off Ghana's eastern coast on the Gulf of Guinea is ongoing, and the amount of both crude oil and natural gas continues to increase. The Parliament of Ghana has drawn plans to nationalize Ghana's entire petroleum and natural gas reserves for greater revenues for the government of Ghana.[80] In addition, the government has sought to build the second nuclear power plant in Africa.
In July 2013, International Enterprise Singapore (IE) Singapore opened its 38th global office in Accra, Ghana to develop trade and investment on logistics, oil and gas, aviation, transportation and consumer sectors.[81] Singapore and Ghana also signed four bilateral agreements to promote public sector and private sector collaboration, as Ghana aims to predominantly shift its economic trade partnership to East Asia and Southeast Asia.[81] The economic centre is IE Singapore's second office in Africa, coming six months after opening in Johannesburg, South Africa in January 2013.[81] Ghana's labour force in 2008 totalled 11.5 million Ghanaian citizens.[82][83] Tema harbour is Africa's largest manmade harbour and Takoradi harbour along with Tema harbour in Ghana handles goods and exports for Ghana, they are also a traffic junctions, where goods are transhipped, the Tema harbour handles the majority of the nation's export cargo and most of the country's chief exports is shipped from Takoradi harbour.[84][85] The Takoradi harbour and Tema harbour are operated by the state-owned Ghana Ports and Harbours Authority.[84][85]
Economic corruption and economic crime
According to Transparency International's Corruption Perception Index of 2013, out of 177 countries, Ghana ranked 63rd with Cuba and Saudi Arabia. Ghana had a score of 46 on a scale where a 0–9 score means highly corrupt, and a 90–100 score means very clean. This was based on perceived levels of public sector corruption.[87] Previously in 2012, the country ranked 64 and scored 45. Thus, Ghana's public sector is seen as more corrupt in 2013 than in 2012, according to CPI's scores.
Aside international reports of corruption in Ghana, local reports have also claimed that Ghana loses US$4.5 billion every year (annually) from gross domestic product (GDP) growth as a result of economic corruption and economic crime by the incumbent National Democratic Congress (NDC) government of Ghana led by John Dramani Mahama.[88] It is also said Ghana has lost an additional US$2.5 billion from gross domestic product (GDP) growth between the months of January 2013 to October 2013 through economic corrupt practices under the Mahama administration.[89] There is public call from Ghanaians for the impeachment of John Dramani Mahama.[89]
The incumbent president is however seen to be fighting corruption by some government members[90] and a fellow politician of an opposition party[91] after ordering investigations into scandals. Nonetheless others believe his actions aren't satisfactory in some cases.[92]
Narcotics industry and drug cartels
Ghana has been used as a key narcotics industry transshipment point by traffickers.[93] There is not wide popular knowledge about the narcotics industry and intercepted narcotics in Ghana due to the involvement of the black economy, although the industry provides extensive contributions to the gross domestic product (GDP) of the nation.[citation needed] The social context within which narcotic trafficking, storage, transportation, and repacking systems exist in Ghana and the state's location along the Gulf of Guinea within the Atlantic Ocean – only a few degrees north of the Equator – makes Ghana an attractive country for the narcotics business.[93][94]
The Narcotic Control Board (NACOB), in collaboration with an internal counterpart, has impounded container ships at the Sekondi Naval Base within the Takoradi Harbour. These ships were carrying millions of kilograms of the narcotic cocaine, with a street value running into billions of Ghana cedis. However, drug seizures saw a decline in 2011.[93][94] Drug cartels and drug lords of Ghana are using new methods in narcotics production and narcotics exportation, worth billions of Ghana cedis annually, in order to avoid Ghanaian security agencies.[93][94] Income inequality, underdeveloped institutions and criminal justice system, porous open borders, and the existence of established smuggling organizations contribute to Ghana's position in the narcotics industry.[93][94]
Ghana has an enabling environment for drug cartels and drug lords. Financial spinout and black economy GDP growth contributions arising from the narcotics trade have generated some social acceptability for drug trade in Ghana. Unless the government takes political action, Ghanaian security researcher Emmanuel Kwesi Aning predicts that Ghana cannot win the fight against its lucrative narcotics trade and could be taken over by drug cartels and drug lords by the year 2020.[94] John Atta Mills, president between 2009 and 2012, initiated ongoing efforts to reduce the role of airports in Ghana's drug trade.[93]
Demographics
Ghana is a multiethnic country and Ghana's territorial area within West Africa was unoccupied and uninhabited by humans until the 10th century A.D.[21] In the 10th century A.D. Akans became first settlers and established Bonoman (Brong Ahafo region) in the 11th century prior to establishing the Akan Kingdom of Ashanti then Akans were joined and followed by African settlers and inhabitants in the 16th century A.D[citation needed] and the Akan created an advanced economy based on principally gold and gold bar commodities then traded with the states of West Africa.[22] There are 15 million inhabitants with Ghanaian passports (Ghanaian people with Ghanaian citizenship) while there are 375,000 registered legal skilled workers (permanent residents) or foreign workers/students (i.e. Ghana card holders) inhabitants with an annually 1.5 million transited airport layovers and Ghana's first post-independence population census, in 1960, counted about 6.7 million inhabitants.[97] The median age of Ghanaian citizens is 30 years old and the average household size is 3.6 persons. 60% (15 million) of the Ghana legal resident population are Ghanaian nationals and whom the majority are Akans.[3] The Akans are the majority inhabitants and 11.5 million (76.6%) of the 15 million Ghanaian citizenry (Ghanaian people) inhabiting population are Akans with a small number (2.5 million) of African minorities from over the centuries (16.7%).[3][98] The official language is English and is spoken by 90% of the inhabiting population; however, 75% of the inhabiting population also speak the Akan language, and 100% of the inhabiting population speak the Niger–Congo languages.[99]
Fertility rate declined from 3.99 (2000) to 3.28 (2010) with 2.78 in Urban region and 3.94 in rural region.[100]
Illegal immigration
Ghana had a 2010 reported inhabiting population of about 24 million inhabitants in which 15 million inhabitants were Ghanaian nationals with Ghanaian citizenship and there was a Government of Ghana and Ghana Immigration Service 2010 inhabiting population of 3 million aliens and 6 million Illegal immigrants inhabiting Ghana and in 1969 under the "Ghana Aliens Compliance Order" (GACO) enacted by the Prime Minister of Ghana Kofi Abrefa Busia;[101] Government of Ghana deported over 3 million aliens and illegal immigrants in 3 months as they made up 20% of the inhabiting population at the time.[101][102]
Culture
Ghana has a multicultural society that is predominantly influenced by the ancient kingdoms of the Akan and Ghanaian culture is diverse and a mixture of the cultures of the Ghanaian people.[103] The Ghanaian national literature radio program and accompanying publication Voices of Ghana was one of the earliest on the African continent. The most prominent Ghanaian authors are novelists; J. E. Casely Hayford, Ayi Kwei Armah and Nii Ayikwei Parkes, who gained international acclaim with the books, Ethiopia Unbound (1911), The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born (1968) and Tail of the Blue Bird (2009), respectively.[104] In addition to novels, other literature arts such as Ghanaian theatre and poetry have also had a very good development and support at the national level with prominent Ghanaian playwrights and poets Joe de Graft and Efua Sutherland.[104]
Ghanaian cuisine and gastronomy is diverse, and includes an assortment of soups and stews with varied seafoods and most Ghanaian soups are prepared with vegetables, meat, poultry or fish.[105] Fish is important in the Ghanaian diet with tilapia, roasted and fried whitebait, smoked fish and crayfish all being common components of Ghanaian dishes.[105] Banku is a common Ghanaian starchy food made from ground corn (maize),[105] and cornmeal based staples, dokonu (kenkey) and banku are usually accompanied by some form of fried fish (chinam) or grilled tilapia and a very spicy condiment made from raw red and green chillies, onions and tomatoes (pepper sauce).[105] Banku and tilapia is a combo served in most Ghanaian restaurants.[105] Fufu is the most common exported Ghanaian dish in that it is a delicacy aross the African diaspora.[105]
See also
Outline of Ghana
Index of Ghana-related articles
External links
Government
Ghana official website
The Parliament of Ghana official site
National Commission on Culture official site
Chief of State and Cabinet Members[dead link]
General information
Country Profile from BBC News
Ghana from Encyclopaedia Britannica
Ghana from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Ghana on the Open Directory Project
Wikimedia Atlas of Ghana
The African Activist Archive Project website has photographs of the All Africa People's Conference held in Accra, Ghana, 5–13 December 1958 including Kwame Nkrumah, Prime Minister of Ghana, addressing the conference, the American Committee on Africa delegation meeting with Nkrumah, and of Patrick Duncan and Alfred Hutchinson of South Africa at the conference.
Key Development Forecasts for Ghana from International Futures
This page was last modified on 1 March 2014
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英領ゴールド・コースト
http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E9%A0%98%E3%82%B4%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AB%E3%83%89%E3%83%BB%E3%82%B3%E3%83%BC%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88
ゴールド・コースト (Gold Coast) はアフリカ西部ギニア湾周辺に設けられた英国の植民地。
この地域への最初のヨーロッパ人の到来は1471年のポルトガルであった。彼らは金を産出する諸王国と接触した。1482年にポルトガルは黄金海岸で最初のヨーロッパ勢の拠点となったエルミナ城を建てた。ここで彼らは奴隷、金、ナイフ、ビーズ、鏡、ラム酒、銃などを交易した。このことはすぐにヨーロッパに知れ渡り、イギリス、デンマーク、ドイツ、スウェーデンの交易者が海岸線に砦を築いた。多量の金が採掘されたため、ヨーロッパ人によってこの地域は黄金海岸と称されてきたが、奴隷も長年にわたって主要な交易品であった。
英領植民地はポルトガル、オランダに代わり1821年に英国政府が海岸付近の土地所有権を手にして設置された。1850年にデンマーク、1872年にはオランダが全ての砦をイギリスに売却した。
イギリスは小王国や他のアフリカ人の国家を支配していた内陸部のアシャンティ王国、他のヨーロッパ植民地に侵攻して徐々に支配地を広げた。イギリスにとっての主な課題はガーナの大部分を支配するアシャンティ人の平定にあった。第一次英アシャンティ戦争 (1863年 - 1864年) ではアシャンティの首長と奴隷制への意見のくい違いで衝突した。1873年 - 1874年の第二次戦争でイギリスはアシャンティの首都クマシを奪った。1893年 - 1894年の第三次戦争はアシャンティの新たな皇帝が新しい称号を求めたことへ対して行われた。1895年 - 1896年の第四次戦争でアシャンティ帝国は独立を失った。ホジソン総督がアシャンティの玉座を盗もうとしたことへの1900年のアシャンティの反乱などの結果、1902年1月1日にアシャンティはイギリスの保護国とされた。
1901年までに黄金海岸の全域の王国や部族がイギリス領に組込まれ、金や他の金属、ダイヤモンド、象牙、胡椒、木材、トウモロコシ、ココアなどの様々な資源がイギリスにより積出された。イギリスの入植者が整備した鉄道はガーナの鉄道の基盤となった。西洋式の病院や学校も建設された。
第二次世界大戦末の1945年までに黄金海岸の住民の自治要求が高まり蜂起を始めた。脱植民地化の波の始まりだった。
1956年までに英領トーゴランド、アシャンティ保護国、ファンテ保護国が併合された。1957年にゴールド・コースト植民地は独立し、国名をガーナと定めた。
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